This paper focuses on the construct of courage, and how it is used in the positive psychological theories of Alfred Adler, Victor Frankl and Irvin Yalom. The paper assumes that there are different kinds of courage, namely: physical, moral and psychological. Psychological courage is the category of interest, and the different ways in which individuals exhibit courage by struggling when confronted with various psychological stressors. The paper discusses the idea of the “neurotic” personality (through the work of Adler, Frankl and Yalom) and how courage plays a role in helping the individual overcome neurotic fears, tracing it through the different positive psychology theories. Ideas of hardiness and other modern attempts by Kobasa, Maddi, and Woodard at providing an operational definition of courage are discussed, as well as the distinction between general and person courage. Finally, the area of courage and faith are discussed and their place in psychology through the work of C.S. Lewis, with the intent of raising awareness of personal courage by a better understanding of individual’s life stories through reference to Henri Nouwen.
Table of Contents: The Psychology of Courage
Introduction.............................................................................. 4
When Courage is required...................................................... 5
Positive Psychology................................................................. 7
Alfred Alder: Individual Psychology.................................... 8
Inferiority.................................................................................. 8
The Neurotic............................................................................ 10
Social Interest..........................................................................10 Conclusion............................................................................... 12
Victor Frankl: Logotherapy................................................. 13
The Will to Meaning……………………….15
Victor Frankl: Logotherapy................................................. 13
The Will to Meaning……………………….15
Neurosis................................. 15
Self-distancing and Self-transcendence............................. 17
Self-formation................................................................ 19
Conclusion............................................................................ 20
Irvin Yalom: Existential Therapy..................................... 20
The Four Givens.................................................................. 21
Irvin Yalom: Existential Therapy..................................... 20
The Four Givens.................................................................. 21
Death Anxiety...................................................................... 22
Specialness and the Ultimate Rescuer............................ 24
Existential Freedom.......................................................... 26
Existential Isolation......................................................... 27
Ultimate Meaninglessness............................................... 29
Conclusion.......................................................................... 29
The Place of Courage in Modern Research.................. 30
The Finfgeld Study........................................................... 31
The Place of Courage in Modern Research.................. 30
The Finfgeld Study........................................................... 31
Courage and Hardiness................................................... 33
Personal and General Courage...................................... 34
Conclusion........................................................................ 35
Courage, Psychology and Faith..................................... 36
C.S. Lewis and Personal Courage................................. 37
Conclusion........................................................................ 35
Courage, Psychology and Faith..................................... 36
C.S. Lewis and Personal Courage................................. 37
Courage and the Christian Clinician.............................39 Discussion........................................................................ 40
References........................................................................ 42
The Psychology of Courage
I have a strong memory from boyhood that comes back to me often: I am sitting on the bench during a hockey game, shoulders hunched, head hanging with discouragement. It is late in the third period, my misfit team is exhausted and down by several goals, I have been called off the ice. The memory is of my father—a man who has known his share of struggle in life—pulling me aside and giving me a line from one of his heroes, Winston Churchill: "success is not final; failure is never fatal; it is the courage to continue that counts." Propelled by the Prime Minister's words, I threw myself back into the game to participate in a valiant loss. These words of Churchill's encapsulate how we think of the virtue of courage. Let our imagination run with the virtue and it might take us to a battlefield, perhaps somewhere in Rome. Exemplified in someone like Maximus, the hero of the movie Gladiator, we see courage as a response to the possibility of utter loss—loss of property, love, identity, or life. Ignoring the possibility of death, Maximus makes his return to Rome from the status of General of the Roman armies by the life of a gladiator. Closer to home, Dr. King stands out alone against injustice and writes his letters, which are still a source of inspiration for many, from the Birmingham Jail. We know these kinds of men (and women) for their individual actions throughout history, but also for their ability to endure constant trial, and their resilience despite perpetual punishment or loss. They are the ones who are seen. However, we use them as examples, and we create art about their acts, which we feel dwarf our own acts of courage. Yet perhaps what makes courage unique is not who or what makes it notorious, but the subtlety of its use. Any man or woman may face difficulties in life, but not all will face a struggle that is ongoing and relentless. For some, the choice to get out of bed, socially interact, or make it through a work day is an act of courage. It is in many of these cases, that the need for courage turns inward, to the mental life of a person.
There is a moment, part way through the child's story The Hobbit, where the protagonist Bilbo Baggins is given a choice. He can either kill the hideous creature Gollum unawares, or spare Gollum’s life. Bilbo chooses pity for Gollum, setting forward a chain of events unforeseeable to him. His decision is described in this way: "all these thoughts passed in a flash of a second. He trembled. And then quite suddenly in another flash, as if lifted by a new strength and resolve, he leaped. No great leap for a man, but a leap in the dark" (Tolkien, 1972, p. 96). Though Bilbo Baggin's choice is largely a moral one, it includes a psychological element. Some people exemplify courage, objectively though a lifetime. Others find it much like Bilbo Baggins, at small yet important impasses. For a person grappling with courage of the mind, or psychological courage however, nothing less than a lifetime of these moments is required. Psychological courage is the willingness of the individual to struggle (Finfgeld, 1999) through situations, relationships, and circumstances that threaten psychic stability (Putman, 1997). This psychic stability is threatened by something as straightforward as chronic pain, as difficult to overcome as a mood disorder, or illusive to define as death-anxiety.
When Courage is Required
Authors Tim Hansel, and James Goldsmith exemplify this range. Hansel, author of a book called You've Got to Keep Dancing, survived a fall down an ice crevasse while mountain climbing. He went on to suffer from depression and a lost marriage, due in part to excruciating back pain. His writing is his personal account of the moment in which he decided to move forward from the injury, in the face of incurable pain. He said of writing his book, "I don't want to 'celebrate pain', but more deeply understand the dignity of what can happen in it, through it, and because of it" (as quoted in his book description). Though Hansel experienced depression and suicidal inclinations, few know mental courage better than those who have struggled with psychological disorders. James Goldsmith was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1997, after several serious breakdowns. Having experienced abuse as a child, and as a result of the breakdowns, hospitalization as an adult, Goldsmith became a student of psychology to better understand himself and how he interacts with the world. He speaks freely and openly about his mental illness, channeling his experiences into lectures that he then shares with members of his church community. For Goldsmith, being at the mercy of emotions never allows for a sense of steadiness. Threats that would go unnoticed to a healthy person cause violent reactions in him and behavior becomes impossible to control, unless with psychotropic drugs. While these men are fantastic examples of courage under consistent hardship, there are roles for courage in the lives of those who have not been battered physiologically or biologically. The concept of the neurotic has continued to describe a person who is wracked by irrational fears, most often created in one’s formative years. Film-writer and actor Woody Allen has defined the modern picture of the neurotic, and preached its gospel with sayings such as “my one regret in life is that I am not somebody else” (Forman, 2005, p. 108). The neurotic is more than the fearful, hand-ringing intellectual however. The title can apply to anyone whose functioning becomes impaired by self-obsessive fear. The nature of the obsession lies in a mental struggle to be “normal” but be consistently ridden by anxiety. Existentialist theologian Paul Tillich (1952), who also delved into psychology, wrote that anxiety is “fear of the unknown” (p.36), while fear itself is attached to objects. The neurotic does not face battles in life where courage is exhibited, for he or she is obsessed with avoiding life’s difficulties and responsibilities. For the neurotic, courage must be found on a long path through therapy, which demands selflessness. Because of the deeply rooted nature of self-obsession, the struggle with oneself is often long and laborious. The neurotic concept plays a pivotal role in the discussion of courage, because it was born out of Positive Psychology, the school of psychology most concerned with courage.
Positive Psychology
Positive Psychology grew out Freudian psychoanalysis, and was developed by theorists who felt Freud’s view of human motivation and dysfunction was limited and cynical. It is the umbrella for many different psychological theories that would carry the idea of courage into the 21st century as more than an archaic virtue. Positive psychology incorporated any theory that looked toward the positive aspects of humanity. Central to its individual theories, is the notion that a person's choice to act in life is comprised of concepts such as fear, courage, hope and purpose. One of the very first theorists in this strain, Alfred Adler, saw the need for courage in man's constant struggle against his natural inferiorities that keep him out of reach of perfection. Psychotherapist Victor Frankl experienced the use for courage in the Nazi concentration camps, where he observed there to be a connection "between the state of mind of a man-his courage and hope, or lack of them-and the state of immunity of his body" (1986, p. 95). As Positive Psychology developed, out of its roots grew Existential Therapy, a therapy that more explicitly addresses the role of meaning and purpose in therapy. Irvin Yalom currently employs therapeutic methods that center on questions of existence that drive or inhibit behavior. He sees the role of courage in confronting these questions. Finally, modern research has spread from the tree of Positive Psychology, through studies done on the concept of Hardiness, suggesting that is it similar or identical to the construct of courage. This paper seeks to explicate different ways in which the construct of psychological (or internal) courage has been interwoven through theories, therapy, and research.
References........................................................................ 42
The Psychology of Courage
I have a strong memory from boyhood that comes back to me often: I am sitting on the bench during a hockey game, shoulders hunched, head hanging with discouragement. It is late in the third period, my misfit team is exhausted and down by several goals, I have been called off the ice. The memory is of my father—a man who has known his share of struggle in life—pulling me aside and giving me a line from one of his heroes, Winston Churchill: "success is not final; failure is never fatal; it is the courage to continue that counts." Propelled by the Prime Minister's words, I threw myself back into the game to participate in a valiant loss. These words of Churchill's encapsulate how we think of the virtue of courage. Let our imagination run with the virtue and it might take us to a battlefield, perhaps somewhere in Rome. Exemplified in someone like Maximus, the hero of the movie Gladiator, we see courage as a response to the possibility of utter loss—loss of property, love, identity, or life. Ignoring the possibility of death, Maximus makes his return to Rome from the status of General of the Roman armies by the life of a gladiator. Closer to home, Dr. King stands out alone against injustice and writes his letters, which are still a source of inspiration for many, from the Birmingham Jail. We know these kinds of men (and women) for their individual actions throughout history, but also for their ability to endure constant trial, and their resilience despite perpetual punishment or loss. They are the ones who are seen. However, we use them as examples, and we create art about their acts, which we feel dwarf our own acts of courage. Yet perhaps what makes courage unique is not who or what makes it notorious, but the subtlety of its use. Any man or woman may face difficulties in life, but not all will face a struggle that is ongoing and relentless. For some, the choice to get out of bed, socially interact, or make it through a work day is an act of courage. It is in many of these cases, that the need for courage turns inward, to the mental life of a person.
There is a moment, part way through the child's story The Hobbit, where the protagonist Bilbo Baggins is given a choice. He can either kill the hideous creature Gollum unawares, or spare Gollum’s life. Bilbo chooses pity for Gollum, setting forward a chain of events unforeseeable to him. His decision is described in this way: "all these thoughts passed in a flash of a second. He trembled. And then quite suddenly in another flash, as if lifted by a new strength and resolve, he leaped. No great leap for a man, but a leap in the dark" (Tolkien, 1972, p. 96). Though Bilbo Baggin's choice is largely a moral one, it includes a psychological element. Some people exemplify courage, objectively though a lifetime. Others find it much like Bilbo Baggins, at small yet important impasses. For a person grappling with courage of the mind, or psychological courage however, nothing less than a lifetime of these moments is required. Psychological courage is the willingness of the individual to struggle (Finfgeld, 1999) through situations, relationships, and circumstances that threaten psychic stability (Putman, 1997). This psychic stability is threatened by something as straightforward as chronic pain, as difficult to overcome as a mood disorder, or illusive to define as death-anxiety.
When Courage is Required
Authors Tim Hansel, and James Goldsmith exemplify this range. Hansel, author of a book called You've Got to Keep Dancing, survived a fall down an ice crevasse while mountain climbing. He went on to suffer from depression and a lost marriage, due in part to excruciating back pain. His writing is his personal account of the moment in which he decided to move forward from the injury, in the face of incurable pain. He said of writing his book, "I don't want to 'celebrate pain', but more deeply understand the dignity of what can happen in it, through it, and because of it" (as quoted in his book description). Though Hansel experienced depression and suicidal inclinations, few know mental courage better than those who have struggled with psychological disorders. James Goldsmith was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1997, after several serious breakdowns. Having experienced abuse as a child, and as a result of the breakdowns, hospitalization as an adult, Goldsmith became a student of psychology to better understand himself and how he interacts with the world. He speaks freely and openly about his mental illness, channeling his experiences into lectures that he then shares with members of his church community. For Goldsmith, being at the mercy of emotions never allows for a sense of steadiness. Threats that would go unnoticed to a healthy person cause violent reactions in him and behavior becomes impossible to control, unless with psychotropic drugs. While these men are fantastic examples of courage under consistent hardship, there are roles for courage in the lives of those who have not been battered physiologically or biologically. The concept of the neurotic has continued to describe a person who is wracked by irrational fears, most often created in one’s formative years. Film-writer and actor Woody Allen has defined the modern picture of the neurotic, and preached its gospel with sayings such as “my one regret in life is that I am not somebody else” (Forman, 2005, p. 108). The neurotic is more than the fearful, hand-ringing intellectual however. The title can apply to anyone whose functioning becomes impaired by self-obsessive fear. The nature of the obsession lies in a mental struggle to be “normal” but be consistently ridden by anxiety. Existentialist theologian Paul Tillich (1952), who also delved into psychology, wrote that anxiety is “fear of the unknown” (p.36), while fear itself is attached to objects. The neurotic does not face battles in life where courage is exhibited, for he or she is obsessed with avoiding life’s difficulties and responsibilities. For the neurotic, courage must be found on a long path through therapy, which demands selflessness. Because of the deeply rooted nature of self-obsession, the struggle with oneself is often long and laborious. The neurotic concept plays a pivotal role in the discussion of courage, because it was born out of Positive Psychology, the school of psychology most concerned with courage.
Positive Psychology
Positive Psychology grew out Freudian psychoanalysis, and was developed by theorists who felt Freud’s view of human motivation and dysfunction was limited and cynical. It is the umbrella for many different psychological theories that would carry the idea of courage into the 21st century as more than an archaic virtue. Positive psychology incorporated any theory that looked toward the positive aspects of humanity. Central to its individual theories, is the notion that a person's choice to act in life is comprised of concepts such as fear, courage, hope and purpose. One of the very first theorists in this strain, Alfred Adler, saw the need for courage in man's constant struggle against his natural inferiorities that keep him out of reach of perfection. Psychotherapist Victor Frankl experienced the use for courage in the Nazi concentration camps, where he observed there to be a connection "between the state of mind of a man-his courage and hope, or lack of them-and the state of immunity of his body" (1986, p. 95). As Positive Psychology developed, out of its roots grew Existential Therapy, a therapy that more explicitly addresses the role of meaning and purpose in therapy. Irvin Yalom currently employs therapeutic methods that center on questions of existence that drive or inhibit behavior. He sees the role of courage in confronting these questions. Finally, modern research has spread from the tree of Positive Psychology, through studies done on the concept of Hardiness, suggesting that is it similar or identical to the construct of courage. This paper seeks to explicate different ways in which the construct of psychological (or internal) courage has been interwoven through theories, therapy, and research.
Finally, Tolkien’s hobbits represent a picture of why the concept of courage is important within psychology. Courage stems from the character of a person, and is exercised regardless of how favorable a basis an individual has to work from. In the stories of Tolkien, hobbits are individuals of short stature and fearful dispositions. When given the chance however, they display remarkable resilience in the face of unknown or painful circumstances. Those whom display psychological courage must often work from a disadvantaged mental platform and are not given the accolades received by warriors and movement-leaders. Perhaps none are as privy to this fact as the therapist, whose life is devoted to affirming the courageous choices made at small but important impasses. I will attempt to point out some of these particular areas of unnoticed, but great strength, and examine what bearing it has upon the way courage is viewed in circles of the Christian faith.
Alfred Adler: Individual Psychology
Considered to be one of the fathers of Positive Psychology, courage played a vital part in Alfred Adler's system of thinking. Adler understood each person primarily through their drive for perfection and superiority. What propels a human being forward in life was for Adler, the inner desire to "Achieve! Arise! Conquer!" (1927 p. 103-104) We are ever searching, ever hoping to overcome obstacles so that we may live up to our prime potential. With this ideal of achieving perfection, Adler was also very aware of its impossibility. And according to Adler, so are each one of us. In our awareness that the world is imperfect, our courage is the force that carries us to live in spite of the imperfection.
Considered to be one of the fathers of Positive Psychology, courage played a vital part in Alfred Adler's system of thinking. Adler understood each person primarily through their drive for perfection and superiority. What propels a human being forward in life was for Adler, the inner desire to "Achieve! Arise! Conquer!" (1927 p. 103-104) We are ever searching, ever hoping to overcome obstacles so that we may live up to our prime potential. With this ideal of achieving perfection, Adler was also very aware of its impossibility. And according to Adler, so are each one of us. In our awareness that the world is imperfect, our courage is the force that carries us to live in spite of the imperfection.
Inferiority
Adler's description of this struggle was stated this way: "to be human means to feel inferior" (1927 p. 115) This is the origin of what we now refer to as the Inferiority Complex. In examining the role of courage, inferiority must be seen as the reason for courage being required. In Adler's mind, some people are born into culture with a mind and a body that are both acceptable and valuable. These people are fortunate enough never to find their body or mind inadequate. But for most, we will experience a lack in one or both of these areas. The experience of this is mainly felt and subjective (Ansbacher, 1964, p. 105) but can be concrete as well, manifested in physical deformities, handicaps or abnormalities in the sexual organs. Anxiety is developed at this point, and "arises from being torn between our expectations and the discrepant realities" (Yang, Milliren & Blagen, 2010, p. 6). This may mean that a non-athletic man may have to give up his dream of playing competitive sports, or that a bipolar woman may have to give up certain expectations about living "normally"—being able to have the same type of vocation, relationship, or family that she sees in those around her. However, it may be even more subjective, as in the feeling of inferiority possessed by a first-born child who struggles to measure up to the expectations of the family placed upon his role in the birth order.
In this sense, inferiority feelings come from bearing a social role that may result in failure, or create the fear of failure. This may lead ultimately to our feeling that we "are incapable of meeting the demands of the world"(Yang et al., 2010, p. 6). These feelings become a "persistent threat to well-being". When the imminent threat that we might fail "grows larger than our fear...fear becomes anxiety"(Yang et al., 2010, p.5). In Adler's mind, this happens consistently throughout each person's life as they reach points of anxiety. Yet most make the necessary adjustments both in their concept of themselves, and in how they contribute to the society around them. This individual would be courageous in the eyes of Alder, for he or she learned live with what is real, rather than demand a solution according to an ideal. However, the person who cannot do this, who cannot give up the wish to be as beautiful, as talented, as fit as certain others, or who is simply hung upon fulfilling a familial role, becomes the neurotic.
The Neurotic
Adler's description of this struggle was stated this way: "to be human means to feel inferior" (1927 p. 115) This is the origin of what we now refer to as the Inferiority Complex. In examining the role of courage, inferiority must be seen as the reason for courage being required. In Adler's mind, some people are born into culture with a mind and a body that are both acceptable and valuable. These people are fortunate enough never to find their body or mind inadequate. But for most, we will experience a lack in one or both of these areas. The experience of this is mainly felt and subjective (Ansbacher, 1964, p. 105) but can be concrete as well, manifested in physical deformities, handicaps or abnormalities in the sexual organs. Anxiety is developed at this point, and "arises from being torn between our expectations and the discrepant realities" (Yang, Milliren & Blagen, 2010, p. 6). This may mean that a non-athletic man may have to give up his dream of playing competitive sports, or that a bipolar woman may have to give up certain expectations about living "normally"—being able to have the same type of vocation, relationship, or family that she sees in those around her. However, it may be even more subjective, as in the feeling of inferiority possessed by a first-born child who struggles to measure up to the expectations of the family placed upon his role in the birth order.
In this sense, inferiority feelings come from bearing a social role that may result in failure, or create the fear of failure. This may lead ultimately to our feeling that we "are incapable of meeting the demands of the world"(Yang et al., 2010, p. 6). These feelings become a "persistent threat to well-being". When the imminent threat that we might fail "grows larger than our fear...fear becomes anxiety"(Yang et al., 2010, p.5). In Adler's mind, this happens consistently throughout each person's life as they reach points of anxiety. Yet most make the necessary adjustments both in their concept of themselves, and in how they contribute to the society around them. This individual would be courageous in the eyes of Alder, for he or she learned live with what is real, rather than demand a solution according to an ideal. However, the person who cannot do this, who cannot give up the wish to be as beautiful, as talented, as fit as certain others, or who is simply hung upon fulfilling a familial role, becomes the neurotic.
The Neurotic
In his explanation of Adler's "neurotic," Wayland Vaughan (1927) stated that the words to escape the mouth of the neurotic individual would be something like: "think of what I might have been, had I not been so seriously handicapped"(p. 361). This idea of neuroticism is attributed to Freud, but for Adler, rather than the abnormal out-workings of repressed drives, it was the condition of a person who had lost their courage. Adler likened this person to an anxious child, who in receiving comfort from its mother, realizes at some point that anxiety can become a tool for manipulating the behavior of the mother (Adler, 1927, p. 304). So too, the neurotic may actively attempt to dominate others, or passively attract attention to oneself. Adler said that "fear of defeat is the only reason for the will to escape," but that the neurotic turns this into a "fictional form of anxiety, which the patient interprets to himself variously but never truly..." (1927, p. 305). As the neurotic individual resists responsibility, "discouragement," Adler said, "forces him to put a distance between himself and absolutely necessary decisions." The escape comes in the form of avoiding normal "tasks of life" (Adler 1927). The majority of which are relationships and social life.
Social Interest
This inferiority is inextricably tied to our ability to relate socially--the more inferior we feel, the more we are turned toward isolation. Courage then for Adler, is ultimately a movement towards social contribution and participation. If social life could be understood in terms of a battlefield, with a front and a rear, the neurotic "separates himself from the front of life" (Adler, 1927, p. 305). This is where Adler's theory grew most emphatic, with his concept of gemeinschaftsgefühl-the word Adler used to describe someone's ideal state of mental health (Yang et. al., 2010). The best English understanding of the word is something like "social feeling". It is this aspect of the person that hinges on being encouraged or discouraged. According to Yang et al. (2010), "social interest is not an inborn ability, but a potential for us to develop, such as learning to add or subtract, throw a football or cook a meal" (2010, p. 18). In this respect, both the well-adjusted person, and the neurotic have to exercise the same muscle of courage in participating and contributing to their community. But what this means, is an actual investment in relationships.
Adler spoke of cooperation as a quality fundamental to the individual from birth. This begins with the child's dependent relationship with the mother, and expands to the family. Authors Yang, Milleren and Blagen sum up Adler's ideas by saying that social interest is "an innate potential that must be consciously developed" (Yang et al., 2010, p. 18). The innate desire must be connected with the learned ability to associate oneself with others, and being willing to receive from them, and give out. For the person struggling to overcome a neurotic tendency, psychological disorder, or fight against an imposed family role, the challenge to cooperate is not a simple one. Ansbacher said of the inferiority that "a discouraged individual may use a real or assumed deficiency for the purpose of special benefit"(1964, p 259). This is precisely where the necessity for courage arrives. The individual must reach out in cooperation with others. For Adler, this often meant that therapeutic relationship was the first attempt at this cooperation. He said that the "task of the physician or psychologist is to give the patient the experience of contact with a fellow man, and then enable him to transfer this awakened social interest to others" (Adler, 1927, p. 341). Adler saw this role like the role of a mother, whose responsibility it was to introduce the child to the world. If, he thought, the mother failed to do this, the responsibility often fell to the therapist later in the patient's life. By that time, that patient would have become much more set in his or her personality, making the shift to social interest allowed. The relationship with the therapist however, provides a motherly safety net in allowing the patient to explore this interest. Here the patient begins to move from a place of discouragement (avoiding or being suspicious of society, or using relationships simply for recognition) to new and uncovered ground where the courage to participate is instilled by the therapist.
Adler saw neurosis and psychosis as the "alibi for non-participation and withdrawal"(Ansbacher, 1956, p. 259) when a person has given up on their courage (Adler, 1927, p. 343). So also he saw the relationship with the therapist as the model for social interest—resuming one's interest in another, by way of the therapist's will to put work into the relationship. What must follow a renewed interest in the community, is the desire to contribute to that community. Authors Yang, Milliren and Blagen state that "there is not a one-to-one correspondence between contribution and reward, and individuals must be able to give far more than they receive" (2010, p. 20) For the patient struggling to move out of isolation, the difficulty lies in having enough patience with oneself to realize that a lifetime of isolation will not allow him or her to quickly build good and healthy relationships. Courage takes form in the act of seeing the joy brought about in others by their interpersonal relationships, the give and take that is required but freely given in friendship, and choosing to contribute as well, without requirement. As interest at the world around one grows, so does the level of an individual's contribution to it—both environmentally and relationally.
Social Interest
This inferiority is inextricably tied to our ability to relate socially--the more inferior we feel, the more we are turned toward isolation. Courage then for Adler, is ultimately a movement towards social contribution and participation. If social life could be understood in terms of a battlefield, with a front and a rear, the neurotic "separates himself from the front of life" (Adler, 1927, p. 305). This is where Adler's theory grew most emphatic, with his concept of gemeinschaftsgefühl-the word Adler used to describe someone's ideal state of mental health (Yang et. al., 2010). The best English understanding of the word is something like "social feeling". It is this aspect of the person that hinges on being encouraged or discouraged. According to Yang et al. (2010), "social interest is not an inborn ability, but a potential for us to develop, such as learning to add or subtract, throw a football or cook a meal" (2010, p. 18). In this respect, both the well-adjusted person, and the neurotic have to exercise the same muscle of courage in participating and contributing to their community. But what this means, is an actual investment in relationships.
Adler spoke of cooperation as a quality fundamental to the individual from birth. This begins with the child's dependent relationship with the mother, and expands to the family. Authors Yang, Milleren and Blagen sum up Adler's ideas by saying that social interest is "an innate potential that must be consciously developed" (Yang et al., 2010, p. 18). The innate desire must be connected with the learned ability to associate oneself with others, and being willing to receive from them, and give out. For the person struggling to overcome a neurotic tendency, psychological disorder, or fight against an imposed family role, the challenge to cooperate is not a simple one. Ansbacher said of the inferiority that "a discouraged individual may use a real or assumed deficiency for the purpose of special benefit"(1964, p 259). This is precisely where the necessity for courage arrives. The individual must reach out in cooperation with others. For Adler, this often meant that therapeutic relationship was the first attempt at this cooperation. He said that the "task of the physician or psychologist is to give the patient the experience of contact with a fellow man, and then enable him to transfer this awakened social interest to others" (Adler, 1927, p. 341). Adler saw this role like the role of a mother, whose responsibility it was to introduce the child to the world. If, he thought, the mother failed to do this, the responsibility often fell to the therapist later in the patient's life. By that time, that patient would have become much more set in his or her personality, making the shift to social interest allowed. The relationship with the therapist however, provides a motherly safety net in allowing the patient to explore this interest. Here the patient begins to move from a place of discouragement (avoiding or being suspicious of society, or using relationships simply for recognition) to new and uncovered ground where the courage to participate is instilled by the therapist.
Adler saw neurosis and psychosis as the "alibi for non-participation and withdrawal"(Ansbacher, 1956, p. 259) when a person has given up on their courage (Adler, 1927, p. 343). So also he saw the relationship with the therapist as the model for social interest—resuming one's interest in another, by way of the therapist's will to put work into the relationship. What must follow a renewed interest in the community, is the desire to contribute to that community. Authors Yang, Milliren and Blagen state that "there is not a one-to-one correspondence between contribution and reward, and individuals must be able to give far more than they receive" (2010, p. 20) For the patient struggling to move out of isolation, the difficulty lies in having enough patience with oneself to realize that a lifetime of isolation will not allow him or her to quickly build good and healthy relationships. Courage takes form in the act of seeing the joy brought about in others by their interpersonal relationships, the give and take that is required but freely given in friendship, and choosing to contribute as well, without requirement. As interest at the world around one grows, so does the level of an individual's contribution to it—both environmentally and relationally.
Conclusion
Adler argued that all schools of psychiatry in his day owed their success with neuroses mainly (and claimed this as the corner stone of Individual Psychology) to their relationship with the patient. That therapy existed mainly to show the individual what social interest looked like, and "to give him encouragement" (Adler, 1927, p. 343). In the context of this relationship, the therapist gave the patient the courage to look at the areas of possible failure or anxiety in life as obstacles to push through on the way to participation and relationship, rather than grow into fearful giants that threaten the stability of the psyche. Adler is said to have called courage the "health of the soul" , and it was for him the sign that his patients were beginning to look beyond their own ailments to the world and benefit of others.
Adler argued that all schools of psychiatry in his day owed their success with neuroses mainly (and claimed this as the corner stone of Individual Psychology) to their relationship with the patient. That therapy existed mainly to show the individual what social interest looked like, and "to give him encouragement" (Adler, 1927, p. 343). In the context of this relationship, the therapist gave the patient the courage to look at the areas of possible failure or anxiety in life as obstacles to push through on the way to participation and relationship, rather than grow into fearful giants that threaten the stability of the psyche. Adler is said to have called courage the "health of the soul" , and it was for him the sign that his patients were beginning to look beyond their own ailments to the world and benefit of others.
Victor Frankl: Logotherapy
Out of Alfred Adler's theories came a greater appreciation for the positive aspects of the individual: his or her abilities to confront difficulties in the personality, the importance of altruism, sacrifice and service. These ideas of human nobility were largely ignored by Freud, or at least attached to darker ulterior motives and drives. But in contradiction with Freud (and often scorned by him), Adler set a trend for many psychiatrists and psychoanalysts who would follow him in their interest of the magnanimity of man. Victor Frankl was also instrumental in forwarding Positive Psychology, as the popular culture appeal of his book Man’s Search for Meaning raised further awareness of psychology, and its interests in the positive aspects of man. Courage played a key role both in Frankl's life, and in his development of his Logotherapy, though perhaps in a more implicit way than Adler's explicit use and understanding of the concept.
Frankl's notoriety and insight are not simply due to to his place in psychiatry, but also to his experiences. Frankl spent the years between 1942 and 1945 in Nazi concentration camps, living alone as his wife, mother and father were murder or died in separate camps. After his release from Auschwitz, Frankl wrote Man’s Search for Meaning (1946) in which he described his experiences and observations as a therapist, and then developed his theory of "logotherapy". His theory centered on the idea that "meaning", in an existential or spiritual sense, is the reason the man or woman lives—and in the case of the concentration camps, the reason a man could stay alive. Frankl's difficult and unique experiences gave him a window into the dignity and bravery of individuals, but also the depth of their despair. In such a situation, Frankl (1986) felt that humans needed to be able to look beyond themselves to overcome difficult circumstances, for he observed that those who survived the concentration camps were often the ones who had something to live for outside of the camp. Being under perpetual physical abuse and taunts from the guards, but most of all the "mental agony caused by the injustice, the unreasonableness of it all" (Frankl, 1986, p. 42) caused many to give up hope. This ultimate despair he saw in concrete terms of saving cigarette vouchers that could be traded for soup, and "when we saw a comrade smoking his own cigarettes, we knew he had given up faith in strength to carry on, and, once lost, the will to live seldom returned" (Frankl, 1986, p. 26).
However, if a man could find a way to focus on an object, belief or experience that gave him purpose, Frankl believed he could survive and even flourish no matter how difficult the circumstances. Frankl recounted such an experience with the memory of his wife, though not being sure if she was dead or alive:
Occasionally I looked at the sky, where the stars were fading and the pink light of morning was beginning to spread behind a dark bank of clouds. But my mind clung to my wife's image, imagining it with an uncanny acuteness. I heard her answer me, saw her smile, her f rank and encouraging look. Real or not, her look was then more luminous than the sun which was beginning to rise (1986, p. 57).
It was this image of his wife which Frankl said, helped him understand how "a man who has nothing left in this world still may know bliss, be it only for a brief moment, in the contemplation of his beloved" (1986, p. 57). By cultivating these moments that kept his inner life vital, Frankl felt he was able to regain his courage, and fight off despair despite a constant attack to the stability of his psyche.
Out of Alfred Adler's theories came a greater appreciation for the positive aspects of the individual: his or her abilities to confront difficulties in the personality, the importance of altruism, sacrifice and service. These ideas of human nobility were largely ignored by Freud, or at least attached to darker ulterior motives and drives. But in contradiction with Freud (and often scorned by him), Adler set a trend for many psychiatrists and psychoanalysts who would follow him in their interest of the magnanimity of man. Victor Frankl was also instrumental in forwarding Positive Psychology, as the popular culture appeal of his book Man’s Search for Meaning raised further awareness of psychology, and its interests in the positive aspects of man. Courage played a key role both in Frankl's life, and in his development of his Logotherapy, though perhaps in a more implicit way than Adler's explicit use and understanding of the concept.
Frankl's notoriety and insight are not simply due to to his place in psychiatry, but also to his experiences. Frankl spent the years between 1942 and 1945 in Nazi concentration camps, living alone as his wife, mother and father were murder or died in separate camps. After his release from Auschwitz, Frankl wrote Man’s Search for Meaning (1946) in which he described his experiences and observations as a therapist, and then developed his theory of "logotherapy". His theory centered on the idea that "meaning", in an existential or spiritual sense, is the reason the man or woman lives—and in the case of the concentration camps, the reason a man could stay alive. Frankl's difficult and unique experiences gave him a window into the dignity and bravery of individuals, but also the depth of their despair. In such a situation, Frankl (1986) felt that humans needed to be able to look beyond themselves to overcome difficult circumstances, for he observed that those who survived the concentration camps were often the ones who had something to live for outside of the camp. Being under perpetual physical abuse and taunts from the guards, but most of all the "mental agony caused by the injustice, the unreasonableness of it all" (Frankl, 1986, p. 42) caused many to give up hope. This ultimate despair he saw in concrete terms of saving cigarette vouchers that could be traded for soup, and "when we saw a comrade smoking his own cigarettes, we knew he had given up faith in strength to carry on, and, once lost, the will to live seldom returned" (Frankl, 1986, p. 26).
However, if a man could find a way to focus on an object, belief or experience that gave him purpose, Frankl believed he could survive and even flourish no matter how difficult the circumstances. Frankl recounted such an experience with the memory of his wife, though not being sure if she was dead or alive:
Occasionally I looked at the sky, where the stars were fading and the pink light of morning was beginning to spread behind a dark bank of clouds. But my mind clung to my wife's image, imagining it with an uncanny acuteness. I heard her answer me, saw her smile, her f rank and encouraging look. Real or not, her look was then more luminous than the sun which was beginning to rise (1986, p. 57).
It was this image of his wife which Frankl said, helped him understand how "a man who has nothing left in this world still may know bliss, be it only for a brief moment, in the contemplation of his beloved" (1986, p. 57). By cultivating these moments that kept his inner life vital, Frankl felt he was able to regain his courage, and fight off despair despite a constant attack to the stability of his psyche.
The Will to Meaning
Frankl's ideas bear witness and similarity to Adler's, but ultimately, Frankl felt humans theirsense of meaning was more inherently spiritual than Adler did. Adler saw his ideas of social interest and contribution as containing a sort of mystical or spiritual element to them, while Frankl saw concepts as incomplete in of themselves. Walter E O'Connell, an Adlerian, commented that "Frankl's spirituality seems to be Adler's social interest in disguise..." (1972, p. 136), while Frankl would have seen Adler's theory "within a reductionist view, reduced by psychodynamic and biological forces" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 358). Frankl understood this choice more existentially, as a man or woman's need for hope. This was explored in what he called the "will to meaning", rather than Freud's "will to pleasure", or the Adlerian "will to power" (the overcoming of inferiority" (Frankl, 1986, p. 120). Adlerians would disagree with Frankl, claiming he misunderstood Adler's conception of willing to power—simply in Adler's mind, "the ideal of expanded self-esteem and social interest" (O'Connell, 1972, p. 135). This is understandable in Frankl's case, as a first hand experience of Nazism would have given him skepticism about the health of a theory based around social participation. Frankl had watched one man’s push for complete superiority over others, and witnessed a country blindly participate and willingly follow his leadership. But he saw that "man, is able to live and die for the sake of his beliefs and values" (Frankl, 1986, p. 115), thereby making him an agent for courageous individual choices.
Frankl's ideas bear witness and similarity to Adler's, but ultimately, Frankl felt humans theirsense of meaning was more inherently spiritual than Adler did. Adler saw his ideas of social interest and contribution as containing a sort of mystical or spiritual element to them, while Frankl saw concepts as incomplete in of themselves. Walter E O'Connell, an Adlerian, commented that "Frankl's spirituality seems to be Adler's social interest in disguise..." (1972, p. 136), while Frankl would have seen Adler's theory "within a reductionist view, reduced by psychodynamic and biological forces" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 358). Frankl understood this choice more existentially, as a man or woman's need for hope. This was explored in what he called the "will to meaning", rather than Freud's "will to pleasure", or the Adlerian "will to power" (the overcoming of inferiority" (Frankl, 1986, p. 120). Adlerians would disagree with Frankl, claiming he misunderstood Adler's conception of willing to power—simply in Adler's mind, "the ideal of expanded self-esteem and social interest" (O'Connell, 1972, p. 135). This is understandable in Frankl's case, as a first hand experience of Nazism would have given him skepticism about the health of a theory based around social participation. Frankl had watched one man’s push for complete superiority over others, and witnessed a country blindly participate and willingly follow his leadership. But he saw that "man, is able to live and die for the sake of his beliefs and values" (Frankl, 1986, p. 115), thereby making him an agent for courageous individual choices.
Neurosis
However, Frankl and Alder shared a common concept in that of treating neuroses. Frankl departs from Adler in the excavation of the inner life as a tool for health. Rather than a focus that is retrospective or introspective like Adler, asking the patient to face their therapeutic relationship or larger social relationships, Frankl saw logotherapy as a forward pointing therapy. However, they shared a common view that the neurotic was someone who wanted to avoid the responsibilities of life. For Frankl, neurotic behavior would not be seen as a loss of courage, but rather the loss of meaning that would propel an individual to courage. The goal for Frankl was to see that the "self-centeredness of the neurotic is broken up instead of being continually fostered and reinforced" (Frankl, 1986, p. 120). These neuroses, Frankl called nöogenic because they were not problems rooted in physiology, but in the mind (nous meaning "mind" in Greek), and originated not from "conflicts between drives and instincts, but rather from existential problems" (Frankl, 1986, p. 123). An individual who is suffering from a nöogenic neurosis, might find that their lost meaning would result in somatic affectation. But this ultimately leads to feelings of emptiness, apathy, permanent boredom and weariness, or incessant chasing after pleasure (Hillmann, 2004, p. 363). Thus, apathy undermines a person's courage for life choices and acts. Logotherapy, focuses on recovering meaning by placing courageous choice back in the hands of the patient. For as Frankl claimed, "each man is questioned by life; and he can only answer to life by answering for his own life; to live he can only respond by being responsible. Thus logotherapy sees in responsibleness the very essence of human existence" (1986, p. 131).
While Frankl thought of Adler's theory mainly for the purpose of dealing youthful or adolescent formation (O'Connell, 1972, p. 136), he was interested in helping people recover the meaning in their life at all states. The two main categories that his theory falls into are that of "self-distancing" and "self-transcendence" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 359). The person who is able to act courageously is able to exercise both of the concepts. While self-transcendence looks toward the "logos" or purpose a person needs, self-distancing is done through small courageous acts towards the self. This applies most readily to those with anxiety disorders, phobias or panic disorders—any situation where all mental energy is focused on the fear itself. When neurosis reaches the level of affecting a person somatically, a cycle is developed where the physical symptom becomes mental anxiety of experiencing the symptom, which in turn perpetuates the physical symptom. The concept of self-distancing is expressed in the technique of paradoxical intention, where the neurotic individual courageously chooses to wish for exactly what one fears (Hillmann, 2004, p. 367). This choice may look something like the insomniac who chooses to wish not to go to sleep, and this works because, "the fear of falling asleep cannot coexist with the actual wish not to go to sleep" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 368). Here Lukas (2002) stated (as cited in Hillmann, 2004, p. 367), the obsessive pattern is broken, and the individual "experiences the self as strong, he evidences courage, seizes the ‘bull by the horns’, and faces anxiety-filled situations intentionally and deliberately" (p. 105).
While Frankl thought of Adler's theory mainly for the purpose of dealing youthful or adolescent formation (O'Connell, 1972, p. 136), he was interested in helping people recover the meaning in their life at all states. The two main categories that his theory falls into are that of "self-distancing" and "self-transcendence" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 359). The person who is able to act courageously is able to exercise both of the concepts. While self-transcendence looks toward the "logos" or purpose a person needs, self-distancing is done through small courageous acts towards the self. This applies most readily to those with anxiety disorders, phobias or panic disorders—any situation where all mental energy is focused on the fear itself. When neurosis reaches the level of affecting a person somatically, a cycle is developed where the physical symptom becomes mental anxiety of experiencing the symptom, which in turn perpetuates the physical symptom. The concept of self-distancing is expressed in the technique of paradoxical intention, where the neurotic individual courageously chooses to wish for exactly what one fears (Hillmann, 2004, p. 367). This choice may look something like the insomniac who chooses to wish not to go to sleep, and this works because, "the fear of falling asleep cannot coexist with the actual wish not to go to sleep" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 368). Here Lukas (2002) stated (as cited in Hillmann, 2004, p. 367), the obsessive pattern is broken, and the individual "experiences the self as strong, he evidences courage, seizes the ‘bull by the horns’, and faces anxiety-filled situations intentionally and deliberately" (p. 105).
Self -Distancing and Self -Transcendence
Humor has long been seen as a virtue that the brave individual carries into the face of fear. So too, the courageous act of self-distancing opens up the possibility of humor as a new paradigm through which to see the old anxiety. The person who attempts to wish themselves awake, "miserably fails in this project by immediately falling asleep" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 368), and finds what once an object of fear, has now become laughable. However, it is not just the person suffering from crippling phobia that finds humor an appropriate expression of courage.
In his book, Find Meaning in Life, David Guttmann wrote about the use of humor for the elderly as they reach the end of their lives. He said, "humor, as the psychologist Reuven P. Bulka (1989) has said, is one of the most useful ways for the individual to gain distance from a given situation" (Guttmann, 2008, p. 114). This ability to self-distance becomes important for the elderly as death seems imminent, and most of life has been live--existing for them to be analyzed and remembered. Humor allows for the expression of and shielding of one's mental courage. In speaking of concentration camp prisoners, citing Cronstrom-Beskow (1991), Guttmann (2008) said of their humor: "it became an integral part of life in the camps. It protected the courage of the prisoners and raised their morale" (p. 119). Instead of attention being kept on the obsession, fear or threat, the patient learns to "ridicule them by irony and by applying paradoxical intention..." wherein the "the vicious circle is cut, the symptom diminishes, and the obsession finally atrophies" (Guttmann, 2008, p. 120). So humor becomes the mark of the healthy neurotic, who gathers the courage to laugh at the ridiculousness of the obsession and the inhibition it causes.
But loss or requirement of courage may come from within (such as overcoming a phobia) or from without (facing death). Frankl said, "when we spoke about attempts to give a man in camp mental courage, we said that he had to be shown something to look forward to in the future. He had to be reminded that life still waited for him, that a human being was waiting for his return" (1986, p. 114) Circumstances or environments can often be the hammer that drives a crack between an individual and his or her meaning. If the circumstances are exceptionally punishing, this may drive an individual to "hyper-reflection" (Hillman, 2004, p. 368), an introspective trap that creates a maze of neurotic self-obsession (Guttmann 2008 pg. 132). Here is the moment where self-transcendence is needed. Comparisons can easily be made to the elderly, who are often thrust into foreign and isolating existences in nursing homes. They watch their bodies break down, and life-long relationships pass, without seemingly much to look forward to. Existence can become a chore, without meaning, causing them to turn inward. This hearkens back to Frankl's reminiscing about his wife while working in the concentration camp. Relationships and goals were what Frankl believed would lead someone to look beyond their "self-concern" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 369). He stressed that we find meaning in three ways: "(1) by creating a work or doing a deed; (2) by experiencing something or encountering someone; and (3) by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering" (Frankl, 1986, p. 133). The ability to turn outward to experience beauty, relationships, and see the rewards of your own work are all abilities that are inhibited by a painful environment or situation. But Frankl argued that there was meaning to be found even in suffering, if one new how to look at it. Once, when treating an elderly man who had lost his wife several years before, Frankl(1986) revealed to his patient, that if he (the patient) had died before his wife, she would have had to suffer his absence. This new perspective, that his suffering in turn meant that his wife did not have to, was a courageous paradigm to require. But in the end, the man found a meaning for his suffering (Frankl, 1986, p. 135).Self-formation
There is a real sense in which Frankl's opinion could be seen as simply avoiding the senselessness of evil and pain. But Frankl was not a naive optimist. He had seen the worst mankind could offer. He recognized in the above example that he could not change the patient's life or bring back his wife, but he was able instill courage when his lost meaning had the potential to drag him into existential despair. Frankl said that the "role played by the therapist is that of an eye specialist rather than that of a painter. A painter tries to convey to us a picture of the world as he sees it; an ophthalmologist tries to enable us to see the world as it really is" (Frankl, 1986, p. 132). Frankl's final stage in logotherapy consisted of this new way of seeing, a rebuilt courage for a new paradigm. This is also referred to as "self-formation" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 369). This is the personal growth established by the ability to self-distance, and self-transcend. Riedel, Deckart and Noyon (2002) commented (as cited in Hillman, 2004, p. 362) that this new attitude toward struggle, suffering and adversity "is especially necessary if the problems that give rise to these attitudes cannot themselves be changed" (2002 p. 34). There is recognition that the threat to mental health will not simply disappear, so techniques are built, courage established, and greater depth is gained by looking beyond the self, rather than within it. Frankl would be instrumental in directing the course of therapy away from Freudian psychoanalysis, and toward a more holistic approach. Thus establishing room for the various existential therapies that follow, and furthering the place of courage and man's nobility in that tradition.
Conclusion In summary of Frankl’s ideas about courage, it is important to note that courage was primarily the work of the individual. Courage was sprung into life by the individual finding an object of purpose or goal that would propel the individual through difficult circumstances. Neurosis develop when this purpose or goal is lost sight of, and an individual begins to turn in on his or her self. A person sets about overcoming this by the courageous acts of self-distancing, and self-transcending. As these changes take place, a new paradigm is developed, which is called self-formation.
Humor has long been seen as a virtue that the brave individual carries into the face of fear. So too, the courageous act of self-distancing opens up the possibility of humor as a new paradigm through which to see the old anxiety. The person who attempts to wish themselves awake, "miserably fails in this project by immediately falling asleep" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 368), and finds what once an object of fear, has now become laughable. However, it is not just the person suffering from crippling phobia that finds humor an appropriate expression of courage.
In his book, Find Meaning in Life, David Guttmann wrote about the use of humor for the elderly as they reach the end of their lives. He said, "humor, as the psychologist Reuven P. Bulka (1989) has said, is one of the most useful ways for the individual to gain distance from a given situation" (Guttmann, 2008, p. 114). This ability to self-distance becomes important for the elderly as death seems imminent, and most of life has been live--existing for them to be analyzed and remembered. Humor allows for the expression of and shielding of one's mental courage. In speaking of concentration camp prisoners, citing Cronstrom-Beskow (1991), Guttmann (2008) said of their humor: "it became an integral part of life in the camps. It protected the courage of the prisoners and raised their morale" (p. 119). Instead of attention being kept on the obsession, fear or threat, the patient learns to "ridicule them by irony and by applying paradoxical intention..." wherein the "the vicious circle is cut, the symptom diminishes, and the obsession finally atrophies" (Guttmann, 2008, p. 120). So humor becomes the mark of the healthy neurotic, who gathers the courage to laugh at the ridiculousness of the obsession and the inhibition it causes.
But loss or requirement of courage may come from within (such as overcoming a phobia) or from without (facing death). Frankl said, "when we spoke about attempts to give a man in camp mental courage, we said that he had to be shown something to look forward to in the future. He had to be reminded that life still waited for him, that a human being was waiting for his return" (1986, p. 114) Circumstances or environments can often be the hammer that drives a crack between an individual and his or her meaning. If the circumstances are exceptionally punishing, this may drive an individual to "hyper-reflection" (Hillman, 2004, p. 368), an introspective trap that creates a maze of neurotic self-obsession (Guttmann 2008 pg. 132). Here is the moment where self-transcendence is needed. Comparisons can easily be made to the elderly, who are often thrust into foreign and isolating existences in nursing homes. They watch their bodies break down, and life-long relationships pass, without seemingly much to look forward to. Existence can become a chore, without meaning, causing them to turn inward. This hearkens back to Frankl's reminiscing about his wife while working in the concentration camp. Relationships and goals were what Frankl believed would lead someone to look beyond their "self-concern" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 369). He stressed that we find meaning in three ways: "(1) by creating a work or doing a deed; (2) by experiencing something or encountering someone; and (3) by the attitude we take toward unavoidable suffering" (Frankl, 1986, p. 133). The ability to turn outward to experience beauty, relationships, and see the rewards of your own work are all abilities that are inhibited by a painful environment or situation. But Frankl argued that there was meaning to be found even in suffering, if one new how to look at it. Once, when treating an elderly man who had lost his wife several years before, Frankl(1986) revealed to his patient, that if he (the patient) had died before his wife, she would have had to suffer his absence. This new perspective, that his suffering in turn meant that his wife did not have to, was a courageous paradigm to require. But in the end, the man found a meaning for his suffering (Frankl, 1986, p. 135).Self-formation
There is a real sense in which Frankl's opinion could be seen as simply avoiding the senselessness of evil and pain. But Frankl was not a naive optimist. He had seen the worst mankind could offer. He recognized in the above example that he could not change the patient's life or bring back his wife, but he was able instill courage when his lost meaning had the potential to drag him into existential despair. Frankl said that the "role played by the therapist is that of an eye specialist rather than that of a painter. A painter tries to convey to us a picture of the world as he sees it; an ophthalmologist tries to enable us to see the world as it really is" (Frankl, 1986, p. 132). Frankl's final stage in logotherapy consisted of this new way of seeing, a rebuilt courage for a new paradigm. This is also referred to as "self-formation" (Hillmann, 2004, p. 369). This is the personal growth established by the ability to self-distance, and self-transcend. Riedel, Deckart and Noyon (2002) commented (as cited in Hillman, 2004, p. 362) that this new attitude toward struggle, suffering and adversity "is especially necessary if the problems that give rise to these attitudes cannot themselves be changed" (2002 p. 34). There is recognition that the threat to mental health will not simply disappear, so techniques are built, courage established, and greater depth is gained by looking beyond the self, rather than within it. Frankl would be instrumental in directing the course of therapy away from Freudian psychoanalysis, and toward a more holistic approach. Thus establishing room for the various existential therapies that follow, and furthering the place of courage and man's nobility in that tradition.
Conclusion In summary of Frankl’s ideas about courage, it is important to note that courage was primarily the work of the individual. Courage was sprung into life by the individual finding an object of purpose or goal that would propel the individual through difficult circumstances. Neurosis develop when this purpose or goal is lost sight of, and an individual begins to turn in on his or her self. A person sets about overcoming this by the courageous acts of self-distancing, and self-transcending. As these changes take place, a new paradigm is developed, which is called self-formation.
Irvin Yalom: Existential Therapy
In following the strain of individual themed therapies and how they work to instill psychological courage in those who experience consistent disruption or struggle in the psyche, the Existential Therapy of Irvin Yalom juts out of a landmass of therapists and theories. Yalom is distinct in his ability to marry Freudian interpretations of motivations, with Adlerian concerns for the therapeutic relationship, and existential concerns of meaning and purpose seen in the writing of Victor Frankl. Yalom began with a traditional psychoanalytic education in the 1950’s, but felt that what was taught was a “narrow approach” (Yalom, Shaughnessy, Main & Madewell, 2007). The framework that Yalom looked through at the time would be broadened by Rollo May’s groundbreaking work Existence, in that it allowed for humanity’s philosophical questions to be incorporated into psychology. Yalom himself is known for expounding the key principles of existential psychology, an emphasis on group therapy, and a deep regard and close connection with his patients. Courage factors into each of these areas from the very inception of existential psychology. Philosophically based around the notion that men and women possess complete freedom; that we are the makers of our own destiny. The early existentialist philosophers such as Sartre or Camus fostered this paradigm in modern philosophy, only a decade before Yalom finished graduate school. As they found no underlying framework to provide humankind a reason for his existence on earth, it was thus to be created by courageous action against an abysmal backdrop of meaninglessness.
In following the strain of individual themed therapies and how they work to instill psychological courage in those who experience consistent disruption or struggle in the psyche, the Existential Therapy of Irvin Yalom juts out of a landmass of therapists and theories. Yalom is distinct in his ability to marry Freudian interpretations of motivations, with Adlerian concerns for the therapeutic relationship, and existential concerns of meaning and purpose seen in the writing of Victor Frankl. Yalom began with a traditional psychoanalytic education in the 1950’s, but felt that what was taught was a “narrow approach” (Yalom, Shaughnessy, Main & Madewell, 2007). The framework that Yalom looked through at the time would be broadened by Rollo May’s groundbreaking work Existence, in that it allowed for humanity’s philosophical questions to be incorporated into psychology. Yalom himself is known for expounding the key principles of existential psychology, an emphasis on group therapy, and a deep regard and close connection with his patients. Courage factors into each of these areas from the very inception of existential psychology. Philosophically based around the notion that men and women possess complete freedom; that we are the makers of our own destiny. The early existentialist philosophers such as Sartre or Camus fostered this paradigm in modern philosophy, only a decade before Yalom finished graduate school. As they found no underlying framework to provide humankind a reason for his existence on earth, it was thus to be created by courageous action against an abysmal backdrop of meaninglessness.
The Four Givens
This is the context for an existential therapy, and out of it grew Yalom’s thinking about four elements of therapy, or what are referred to in this school as “the ‘givens’ of existence” (Yalom, 1989). These four aspects of life are: the inevitability of death, our freedom, our ultimate aloneness, and the lack of inherent meaning in life. In Yalom’s words, “however grim these givens may seem they contain the seeds of wisdom and redemption” (Yalom, 1989 p. 5). Though much of the language is derivative of existential philosophy, each of these “givens” carries psychological ideas and bears practical resemblance to the individual and logotherapies of Adler and Frankl. Each is concerned with instilling in a patient the courage to meet reality as it is, not as it has been idealized. Yalom seeks to describe psychological struggle in terms of “life questions”, rather than just simply “suppressed instinctual strivings” (Yalom, 2002, p. 306). In the context of existentialism, Yalom’s main understanding for personal disturbance or dysfunction is described as “existence anxiety” or “existence pain”. Existence pain is comparable to Alfred Adler’s understanding of neuroses being created by an individual’s feelings of inferiority, and to Frankl’s ideas about the loss of purpose or meaning. Where Frankl saw loss of hope, or Adler discouragement, Yalom sees the cause of dysfunction or neuroticism occurring when “every human being experiences the anxiety accompanying thoughts of death, meaninglessness, freedom, (that is, the fundamental lack of structure in existence, das nichts) and fundamental isolation…” (Yalom, 2002, p. 308). These concepts are the grid through which existential therapy examines a patient’s unhappiness, and ultimately develop a language of existing that requires internal courage for the external world.
This is the context for an existential therapy, and out of it grew Yalom’s thinking about four elements of therapy, or what are referred to in this school as “the ‘givens’ of existence” (Yalom, 1989). These four aspects of life are: the inevitability of death, our freedom, our ultimate aloneness, and the lack of inherent meaning in life. In Yalom’s words, “however grim these givens may seem they contain the seeds of wisdom and redemption” (Yalom, 1989 p. 5). Though much of the language is derivative of existential philosophy, each of these “givens” carries psychological ideas and bears practical resemblance to the individual and logotherapies of Adler and Frankl. Each is concerned with instilling in a patient the courage to meet reality as it is, not as it has been idealized. Yalom seeks to describe psychological struggle in terms of “life questions”, rather than just simply “suppressed instinctual strivings” (Yalom, 2002, p. 306). In the context of existentialism, Yalom’s main understanding for personal disturbance or dysfunction is described as “existence anxiety” or “existence pain”. Existence pain is comparable to Alfred Adler’s understanding of neuroses being created by an individual’s feelings of inferiority, and to Frankl’s ideas about the loss of purpose or meaning. Where Frankl saw loss of hope, or Adler discouragement, Yalom sees the cause of dysfunction or neuroticism occurring when “every human being experiences the anxiety accompanying thoughts of death, meaninglessness, freedom, (that is, the fundamental lack of structure in existence, das nichts) and fundamental isolation…” (Yalom, 2002, p. 308). These concepts are the grid through which existential therapy examines a patient’s unhappiness, and ultimately develop a language of existing that requires internal courage for the external world.
Death-anxiety
The first “given” is perhaps the easiest to relate to, and most obviously associated with courage. The fear of death (or death anxiety) is readily spoken of in the same breath as physical courage. Any soldier on a battlefield understands the uncertainty of when life will end. However, Yalom takes the fear of death to be much more than a fear simply of the moment of death. Rather, our cause for concern is the gravity of what death symbolizes. Death anxiety is the result of the ramifications that our biological decay has upon our sense of vitality. To look at in terms of age, a young person will be able to “deny or escape it”, while the elderly are forced to put it out of mind, or place a positive emphasis on it with sentiments about the afterlife. What death symbolizes existentially can come in many forms, whether loss of beauty, sexual potency or lack of posterity, but it is always the dread of what is lost that brings the dysfunction. Yalom underlines the dread at the loss of control this way: “Victor Frankl once suggested that Boyle’s law of gaseous expansion in a physical space could be applied to anxiety, that anxiety expands to fill any space offered to it” (Yalom, 1998, p. 148).
For Yalom, the tension builds in any situation where the patient is made aware of their mortality—an easily offered space. In his book, Love’s Executioner, Yalom recounted the story of one such patient attempting to ease his death anxiety by masquerading as a sexual monster. Carlos, a thirty-nine year old man who was battling cancer, was placed in group therapy by Yalom because of his resistance to any improvement during individual therapy. Yalom described him this way: "He was so preoccupied with women that he seemed to forget that he had a cancer that was actively infiltrating all the crawl spaces of his body" (Yalom, 1989, p. 79). Carlos’ obsession with women led him to show no empathy to the other members of the group, and persist with chasing every woman within sight.
After one particularly intense session where Yalom had broken through to Carlos, they were able to analyze one of Carlos’ dreams together. Due in part to his psychodynamic background, Yalom believes dreams to reveal a great deal about a person's death anxiety. Carlos recounted a dream that revealed his fear of dying, and its relationship to his belief in reincarnation. Carlos' fear and anxiety stemmed from what he believed he deserved (a unwanted body). The sexual obsession Yalom believed, persisted because "as long as he continued to believe that he was tantalizingly close to being desired and loved by an attractive woman, he could buttress his belief that he was no different from anyone else, that there was nothing seriously wrong with him, that he was not disfigured, not mortally ill" (1989, p. 87). For Carlos, courage came in the form of letting go of an unrealistic expectation that a woman was going go ease the pain of knowing he was dying.
For Yalom, the tension builds in any situation where the patient is made aware of their mortality—an easily offered space. In his book, Love’s Executioner, Yalom recounted the story of one such patient attempting to ease his death anxiety by masquerading as a sexual monster. Carlos, a thirty-nine year old man who was battling cancer, was placed in group therapy by Yalom because of his resistance to any improvement during individual therapy. Yalom described him this way: "He was so preoccupied with women that he seemed to forget that he had a cancer that was actively infiltrating all the crawl spaces of his body" (Yalom, 1989, p. 79). Carlos’ obsession with women led him to show no empathy to the other members of the group, and persist with chasing every woman within sight.
After one particularly intense session where Yalom had broken through to Carlos, they were able to analyze one of Carlos’ dreams together. Due in part to his psychodynamic background, Yalom believes dreams to reveal a great deal about a person's death anxiety. Carlos recounted a dream that revealed his fear of dying, and its relationship to his belief in reincarnation. Carlos' fear and anxiety stemmed from what he believed he deserved (a unwanted body). The sexual obsession Yalom believed, persisted because "as long as he continued to believe that he was tantalizingly close to being desired and loved by an attractive woman, he could buttress his belief that he was no different from anyone else, that there was nothing seriously wrong with him, that he was not disfigured, not mortally ill" (1989, p. 87). For Carlos, courage came in the form of letting go of an unrealistic expectation that a woman was going go ease the pain of knowing he was dying.
Specialness and the Ultimate Rescuer
Yalom also sees the fear of death, or loss, in two sub-categories: specialness, and belief in an ultimate rescuer. Each of these concepts are ways of avoiding the finality that exists in our lives. Yalom says that the belief of specialness is exposed when a life-event, "lays bare one's ordinariness and challenges the common assumption that life will always be an eternal upward spiral" (Yalom, 1989, p. 7). Yalom speaks of a patient called "Mike" to illustrate this. His story revolved around building a life that was completely independent and "individuated" (Yalom, 1998, p. 207). The life he created for himself was threatened by cancer, and he was crippled with fear at the experience of chemotherapy. Yalom thinks this fear of therapy expressive of something deeper, stating, "though Mike did not consciously fear death, his fear of therapy was an obvious displacement of death anxiety. What was truly dreadful for Mike was to be dependent and static: these conditions ignited terror, they were death equivalents; and most of his life he had overcome them by a consummate self-reliance" (Yalom, 1998, p. 206). This concept resounds with Alfred Adler's attempts to help his patients work through their disappointed expectations of life. Though, according to Adler, an individual becomes aware of their imperfection when they do not meet the demands of life. For Yalom, this comes as a larger existential paradigm shift from "the awareness of our smallness and the awesomeness of the external world, of our parents' inadequacies, of our creatureliness, [and] of the bodily functions that tie us to nature..." (1998, p. 214). When we truly encounter these realities, we are made quickly aware that we are not immutable.
Yalom is a self-proclaimed atheist, and though he is most likely to see religious beliefs in the typical psychoanalytic way (as neuroses), he also does not hold grudge against religion. In certain cases like that of Carlos' belief in reincarnation, he does not find it necessary to dislodge religious beliefs he does not think were hindering the patient. However, his atheism is apparent in the concept of the ultimate rescuer. Though this is easily translated to being an attack upon deities, Yalom's concern is personal responsibility. Yalom states: "one becomes one's own parent or remains the eternal child" (1989, p. 7). Yalom's atheism is not particularly novel; it bears many resemblances to Freud's ideas about religion. But it is important for the sake of understanding "existence-anxiety", to recognize the use of the ultimate rescuer as a means of avoiding courageous engagement with the responsibilities of life. Yalom feels that in any averse circumstance, "we are convinced, a looming omnipotent servant" (1989, p. 7) waits to keep us from oblivion. The objective truth of this based upon whichever presupposition we begin with: whether there is a benevolent God who interacts with humanity in space and time, or that we must begin simply with what is available in the natural world. Considering that is beyond the scope of this paper. However, Yalom's statement about becoming one's own parent, instead of remaining the eternal child, cannot be contradicted by any religious framework that attempts to remain close to reality. Seeing God as father bears a tremendous healing weight, yet cripples one if it is used as a shield from pain and an alternate to courage in the face of struggle. The hypocrisy lies in the fact that while “our ultimate rescuer is omnipotent, he is at the same time our eternal servant” (Yalom, 1998, p. 229).
Yalom also speaks of the fear of death in an inverse way. When he rephrases an idea of Otto Rank’s: that “there is in the individual a primal fear that manifests itself sometimes as a fear of life, sometimes as a fear of death” (Yalom, 1998, p. 229). This bears deep resemblance to the way in which Adler understood the neurotic’s resistance to society, responsibility, and ultimately life. Though for Adler, this fear or resistance springs from the fear of not being able to meet the "demands" of society, while for Yalom, the disappointments are undergirded by internal questions of existence. The anxiety results less from social paralysis at other’s expectation for an individual’s participation (that is, the dynamics of the anxiety resulting from other individuals), but from one’s own existential solitariness. Yalom states that this fear is “having to face life as an isolated being, it is the fear of individuation, of “going forward”, of standing out from nature” (1998, p. 229). For the existentialist, this is essence of courage. Loneliness in this context, does not mean literal interpersonal isolation (as Adler so emphatically argued against), but courageously embracing one’s own individual being. The profile of a person who courageously looks death in the eye, appropriately grieves loss, and is self-aware is difficult to describe. What results in therapeutic situations is personalities attempting to escape death or life-anxiety by separation or fusion. Yalom’s concepts of specialness and the ultimate rescuer are out workings of these two personality types. As in the case of Mike, the man who attempted to live a completely self-sufficient life, separation is a form of cowardice, easily destroyed by aversive circumstances. Yalom defines fusion well when speaking about another patient “Sam”. Yalom relates: “in fact, after his wife left him, he realized that he felt he existed only if he were loved: in a state of isolation he froze, much like a terrified animal, into a state of suspended animation—not living, but not dying either” (1998, p. 207). Each of these attempts to ease the anxiety arising from fear of life, can be effective in the short-term, but prohibit growth of vital social integration, or personal vitality and purpose. When illness weakens the avoidant individual, or the dependant loses the other who brought a sense of meaning, the fear of life is incapacitating.
Yalom also sees the fear of death, or loss, in two sub-categories: specialness, and belief in an ultimate rescuer. Each of these concepts are ways of avoiding the finality that exists in our lives. Yalom says that the belief of specialness is exposed when a life-event, "lays bare one's ordinariness and challenges the common assumption that life will always be an eternal upward spiral" (Yalom, 1989, p. 7). Yalom speaks of a patient called "Mike" to illustrate this. His story revolved around building a life that was completely independent and "individuated" (Yalom, 1998, p. 207). The life he created for himself was threatened by cancer, and he was crippled with fear at the experience of chemotherapy. Yalom thinks this fear of therapy expressive of something deeper, stating, "though Mike did not consciously fear death, his fear of therapy was an obvious displacement of death anxiety. What was truly dreadful for Mike was to be dependent and static: these conditions ignited terror, they were death equivalents; and most of his life he had overcome them by a consummate self-reliance" (Yalom, 1998, p. 206). This concept resounds with Alfred Adler's attempts to help his patients work through their disappointed expectations of life. Though, according to Adler, an individual becomes aware of their imperfection when they do not meet the demands of life. For Yalom, this comes as a larger existential paradigm shift from "the awareness of our smallness and the awesomeness of the external world, of our parents' inadequacies, of our creatureliness, [and] of the bodily functions that tie us to nature..." (1998, p. 214). When we truly encounter these realities, we are made quickly aware that we are not immutable.
Yalom is a self-proclaimed atheist, and though he is most likely to see religious beliefs in the typical psychoanalytic way (as neuroses), he also does not hold grudge against religion. In certain cases like that of Carlos' belief in reincarnation, he does not find it necessary to dislodge religious beliefs he does not think were hindering the patient. However, his atheism is apparent in the concept of the ultimate rescuer. Though this is easily translated to being an attack upon deities, Yalom's concern is personal responsibility. Yalom states: "one becomes one's own parent or remains the eternal child" (1989, p. 7). Yalom's atheism is not particularly novel; it bears many resemblances to Freud's ideas about religion. But it is important for the sake of understanding "existence-anxiety", to recognize the use of the ultimate rescuer as a means of avoiding courageous engagement with the responsibilities of life. Yalom feels that in any averse circumstance, "we are convinced, a looming omnipotent servant" (1989, p. 7) waits to keep us from oblivion. The objective truth of this based upon whichever presupposition we begin with: whether there is a benevolent God who interacts with humanity in space and time, or that we must begin simply with what is available in the natural world. Considering that is beyond the scope of this paper. However, Yalom's statement about becoming one's own parent, instead of remaining the eternal child, cannot be contradicted by any religious framework that attempts to remain close to reality. Seeing God as father bears a tremendous healing weight, yet cripples one if it is used as a shield from pain and an alternate to courage in the face of struggle. The hypocrisy lies in the fact that while “our ultimate rescuer is omnipotent, he is at the same time our eternal servant” (Yalom, 1998, p. 229).
Yalom also speaks of the fear of death in an inverse way. When he rephrases an idea of Otto Rank’s: that “there is in the individual a primal fear that manifests itself sometimes as a fear of life, sometimes as a fear of death” (Yalom, 1998, p. 229). This bears deep resemblance to the way in which Adler understood the neurotic’s resistance to society, responsibility, and ultimately life. Though for Adler, this fear or resistance springs from the fear of not being able to meet the "demands" of society, while for Yalom, the disappointments are undergirded by internal questions of existence. The anxiety results less from social paralysis at other’s expectation for an individual’s participation (that is, the dynamics of the anxiety resulting from other individuals), but from one’s own existential solitariness. Yalom states that this fear is “having to face life as an isolated being, it is the fear of individuation, of “going forward”, of standing out from nature” (1998, p. 229). For the existentialist, this is essence of courage. Loneliness in this context, does not mean literal interpersonal isolation (as Adler so emphatically argued against), but courageously embracing one’s own individual being. The profile of a person who courageously looks death in the eye, appropriately grieves loss, and is self-aware is difficult to describe. What results in therapeutic situations is personalities attempting to escape death or life-anxiety by separation or fusion. Yalom’s concepts of specialness and the ultimate rescuer are out workings of these two personality types. As in the case of Mike, the man who attempted to live a completely self-sufficient life, separation is a form of cowardice, easily destroyed by aversive circumstances. Yalom defines fusion well when speaking about another patient “Sam”. Yalom relates: “in fact, after his wife left him, he realized that he felt he existed only if he were loved: in a state of isolation he froze, much like a terrified animal, into a state of suspended animation—not living, but not dying either” (1998, p. 207). Each of these attempts to ease the anxiety arising from fear of life, can be effective in the short-term, but prohibit growth of vital social integration, or personal vitality and purpose. When illness weakens the avoidant individual, or the dependant loses the other who brought a sense of meaning, the fear of life is incapacitating.
Existential Freedom
The fear of embracing life relates to the second of the ‘givens’: freedom. Here Yalom sees freedom in the traditionally existential way, that “we do not enter into, and ultimately leave, a well-structured universe with an eternal grand design” (Yalom, 1989, p. 8). From this basis, it is right to assume that any meaning a person can have, is derived from actions in the world. As there is no ultimate rescuer, it is down to the responsibility of the agent. Personal responsibility is a constant battle, particularly for the neurotic patient, and for most anyone who enters therapy. Yalom sees acceptance of personal responsibility as the first important step in therapy. He says, “I prefer Sartre’s definition: to be responsible is to ‘be the author of,’ each of us being thus the author of his or her own life design” (Yalom, 1989, p. 8). Commonly, patients who seek therapy come with the belief that their problems are the result of other people’s actions or forces beyond their control (attributed to Phil Wright). There are different methods of attempting to make the patient aware that they are the cause, but Yalom’s strongest and most emphatic principle is that of his own connection with the patient. Like Adler and Frankl before him, Yalom works to instill courage in his patients by calling it forth from them by making himself available in relationship. One technique he uses he calls “the here-and-now focus” (Yalom, 1989, p. 9). This works because of the tendency patients have of exhibiting similar interpersonal problems when they are one-on-one with a therapist, or in a group. The therapist can correlate his or her relationship with the patient to relationships in reality. When this becomes a revelation to the patient, they are required to reckon with the “will” component of freedom. Once the door is open, is up to the patient to walk through and take responsibility. The interaction with the therapist, or other group members will have called for the courageous action of the fearful client, and spurred them to act.
The fear of embracing life relates to the second of the ‘givens’: freedom. Here Yalom sees freedom in the traditionally existential way, that “we do not enter into, and ultimately leave, a well-structured universe with an eternal grand design” (Yalom, 1989, p. 8). From this basis, it is right to assume that any meaning a person can have, is derived from actions in the world. As there is no ultimate rescuer, it is down to the responsibility of the agent. Personal responsibility is a constant battle, particularly for the neurotic patient, and for most anyone who enters therapy. Yalom sees acceptance of personal responsibility as the first important step in therapy. He says, “I prefer Sartre’s definition: to be responsible is to ‘be the author of,’ each of us being thus the author of his or her own life design” (Yalom, 1989, p. 8). Commonly, patients who seek therapy come with the belief that their problems are the result of other people’s actions or forces beyond their control (attributed to Phil Wright). There are different methods of attempting to make the patient aware that they are the cause, but Yalom’s strongest and most emphatic principle is that of his own connection with the patient. Like Adler and Frankl before him, Yalom works to instill courage in his patients by calling it forth from them by making himself available in relationship. One technique he uses he calls “the here-and-now focus” (Yalom, 1989, p. 9). This works because of the tendency patients have of exhibiting similar interpersonal problems when they are one-on-one with a therapist, or in a group. The therapist can correlate his or her relationship with the patient to relationships in reality. When this becomes a revelation to the patient, they are required to reckon with the “will” component of freedom. Once the door is open, is up to the patient to walk through and take responsibility. The interaction with the therapist, or other group members will have called for the courageous action of the fearful client, and spurred them to act.
Existential Isolation
The third ‘given’ that Yalom lists at the center of his therapy, is idea that humankind is essentially alone. The existential theologian Paul Tillich pointed out that each creature exists separate, in a body apart from other bodies. Tillich further posits that, “he also knows that he is alone. Aware of what he is, he asks the question of his aloneness” (1963, p. 15). Yalom is careful to distinguish between kinds of aloneness. Intrapsychic Isolation defines the relationship a person has with oneself, commonly spoken of in therapy as “splitting”, or disintegration of pieces of that person’s identity. Secondly, Interpersonal Isolation covers the different ways people experience loneliness in relationships, whether through situation, personality disorders, or social skills (Yalom, 2002, p. 311). This sort of isolation was addressed by Adler in his ideas about social interest where the inferior person descends into Interpersonal Isolation when hindered by his or her unmet expectation. However, Yalom is particularly interested in Existential Isolation, which he describes as: “the unbridgeable gulf between oneself and the world, a separation not only between oneself and others but between self and world” (Yalom, 2002, p. 311). Yalom believes this is most commonly witnessed by those who’s death is imminent, and must deal with the fact that just as they came into the world alone, they must also go through the act of dying alone. This “self-awareness” (Yalom, 1989, p. 12) causes great anxiety, but also courageous growth if the patient connects it to their own responsibility (or total freedom to act). Yalom observed this in the story of Carlos, the sexual prowler with cancer. As Carlos began to release his stranglehold upon wanting to be with a woman so as not to face his death alone, he began to give to Yalom, his estranged family, community, and especially those within the group. Yalom also sees the anxiety about this isolation as the engine for fusion—those who cannot stand the thought of being “ultimately alone” fuse to release some of their identity and make the anxiety less painful. For Yalom, falling in love is the greatest example of fusion (think of Romeo and Juliette), for the person in love has “entered into a blissful state of merger, is not self-reflective because the questioning lonely I (and the attendant anxiety of isolation) dissolve into the we” (1989, p. 12).
The third ‘given’ that Yalom lists at the center of his therapy, is idea that humankind is essentially alone. The existential theologian Paul Tillich pointed out that each creature exists separate, in a body apart from other bodies. Tillich further posits that, “he also knows that he is alone. Aware of what he is, he asks the question of his aloneness” (1963, p. 15). Yalom is careful to distinguish between kinds of aloneness. Intrapsychic Isolation defines the relationship a person has with oneself, commonly spoken of in therapy as “splitting”, or disintegration of pieces of that person’s identity. Secondly, Interpersonal Isolation covers the different ways people experience loneliness in relationships, whether through situation, personality disorders, or social skills (Yalom, 2002, p. 311). This sort of isolation was addressed by Adler in his ideas about social interest where the inferior person descends into Interpersonal Isolation when hindered by his or her unmet expectation. However, Yalom is particularly interested in Existential Isolation, which he describes as: “the unbridgeable gulf between oneself and the world, a separation not only between oneself and others but between self and world” (Yalom, 2002, p. 311). Yalom believes this is most commonly witnessed by those who’s death is imminent, and must deal with the fact that just as they came into the world alone, they must also go through the act of dying alone. This “self-awareness” (Yalom, 1989, p. 12) causes great anxiety, but also courageous growth if the patient connects it to their own responsibility (or total freedom to act). Yalom observed this in the story of Carlos, the sexual prowler with cancer. As Carlos began to release his stranglehold upon wanting to be with a woman so as not to face his death alone, he began to give to Yalom, his estranged family, community, and especially those within the group. Yalom also sees the anxiety about this isolation as the engine for fusion—those who cannot stand the thought of being “ultimately alone” fuse to release some of their identity and make the anxiety less painful. For Yalom, falling in love is the greatest example of fusion (think of Romeo and Juliette), for the person in love has “entered into a blissful state of merger, is not self-reflective because the questioning lonely I (and the attendant anxiety of isolation) dissolve into the we” (1989, p. 12).
Ultimate Meaninglessness
The final ‘given’ of existence Yalom prescribes to, has already been briefly mentioned in reference to his atheism. Yalom’s belief that there is no ultimate ‘groundedness’ in the universe, allows for meaning only when it “ensues from meaningful activity: the more we deliberately pursue it, the less like likely we are to find it” (1989, p. 13). For Yalom, this belief is important because it “turns our attention to the principle of engagement” (1998 p. 265). Engagement, for Yalom, requires a Zen-like approach when confronting meaning or purpose. Yalom states, “I agree with Victor Frankl that it is best not to pursue purpose explicitly but to allow it to ensue from meaningful and authentic engagement” (2002, p. 310). The best way to find meaning in one’s life, is to “immerse oneself into the river of life and let the question drift away” (Yalom, 2002, p. 310). A patient’s search for existential meaning is really an attempt to erase the ambiguities and uncertainty of being human. For Yalom, “the capacity to tolerate uncertainty is a prerequisite for the profession” (1989, p. 14). Yalom’s example to his patients is modeling courage. For the therapist to be open with the patient about existential meaning, he or she must already have grappled with the concept. In a therapeutic style such as Yalom’s where the therapy is based upon relationship rather than technique, experiencing the patient calls for a level comfort with uncertainty. As Yalom says, “the experience of the other is, in the end, unyieldingly private and unknowable” (1989, p. 13).
Conclusion
The final ‘given’ of existence Yalom prescribes to, has already been briefly mentioned in reference to his atheism. Yalom’s belief that there is no ultimate ‘groundedness’ in the universe, allows for meaning only when it “ensues from meaningful activity: the more we deliberately pursue it, the less like likely we are to find it” (1989, p. 13). For Yalom, this belief is important because it “turns our attention to the principle of engagement” (1998 p. 265). Engagement, for Yalom, requires a Zen-like approach when confronting meaning or purpose. Yalom states, “I agree with Victor Frankl that it is best not to pursue purpose explicitly but to allow it to ensue from meaningful and authentic engagement” (2002, p. 310). The best way to find meaning in one’s life, is to “immerse oneself into the river of life and let the question drift away” (Yalom, 2002, p. 310). A patient’s search for existential meaning is really an attempt to erase the ambiguities and uncertainty of being human. For Yalom, “the capacity to tolerate uncertainty is a prerequisite for the profession” (1989, p. 14). Yalom’s example to his patients is modeling courage. For the therapist to be open with the patient about existential meaning, he or she must already have grappled with the concept. In a therapeutic style such as Yalom’s where the therapy is based upon relationship rather than technique, experiencing the patient calls for a level comfort with uncertainty. As Yalom says, “the experience of the other is, in the end, unyieldingly private and unknowable” (1989, p. 13).
Conclusion
In existential therapy, courage results from a patient being able to account for the givens of existence in their life, respond and engage. In his book, The Courage to Be, Paul Tillich stated: “courage is self-affirmation ‘in-spite-of’, that is in spite of that which tends to prevent the self from affirming itself…anxiety turns us toward courage because the other alternative is despair” (1952, p. 66). Tillich’s understanding of the person is more tinged with spirituality than the courage or discouragement of Adler, though spiritual only in the sense of being worldview centered on the ultimate concerns of life, rather than the existence of an outside force. Indeed, Yalom seems to be more aligned with the ideas of Frankl which are centered on meaning. In therapy, the place of courage is imperative as well as relational in its transference between the therapist and patient, or group and patient. As Tillich said, “Since anxiety is existential, it cannot be removed. But courage takes the anxiety of nonbeing into itself” (Tillich, 1952, p. 66). Courage is the buffer between the individual and open-endedness of life. Adler saw courage instilled by his relationship with his patients, Frankl saw it instilled through hope (goals). Yalom’s use of his relationship with his patients allows him to address the constructs of fusion and separation, requiring that his patients take their anxiety into their courage. Since life ultimately has no meaning, hope is born when a patient acts courageously, and the anxiety of the ultimate concerns is relieved.
The Place of Courage in Modern Research With the likes of theorists and clinicians such as Alfred Adler, Victor Frankl, and Irvin Yalom, positive psychology has grown in prevalence since the 1950’s. As psychology has taken more of an interest in the positive aspects of the person, courage has developed as a construct, and attempts have been made at finding a qualitative definition for it. Deborah L. Finfgeld preformed a meta-interpretation (1999) of six different qualitative studies that looked at the concept of courage in different health contexts. Primarily, those involved were “individuals with long-term threats to their well-being” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 804). Finfgeld compiled the research under three guidelines: that (1) the definition of “threat to wellbeing” would be clear, and defined, that (2) “established experiences of courage” were studied, and (3) well known and accepted methods were used in the studies examined. Finfgeld pulled from studies with participants who had battled cancer, HIV, physical disabilities, sexual assault, and other varied physical problems. Finfgeld’s Study
In her findings, Finfgeld categorized courage on a progressive-regressive continuum so as to label the fluid nature of the construct. She concluded that courage was a “dynamic phenomenon” caused by certain events, and “consisted of efforts to (a) fully accept reality, (b) problem solve based on discernment, and (c) push beyond ongoing struggles” (1999 p. 806). Finfgeld assessed from these studies that an individual’s path to being courageous was “bidirectional” and progress and regress. Much like the description of Bilbo Baggins in the Hobbit, pulling from a study by Haase (1985), Finfgeld (1999) found that “‘mini-situations of courage’ (Haase, p. 152) force movement in an overall progressive direction rather than a regressive direction” (p. 806). This process Finfgeld (1999) says, is revealed “within the context of an ongoing and amorphous struggle” (p. 807). The elements of this struggle may look like “participating in diagnostic and therapeutic regimes (Asarian, 1981; 1985), accepting compromises in one’s lifestyle (Finfgeld, 1992; Haase, 1985) and altering plans for the future” (Fingeld, 1999, p. 807). These comments bear distinct resemblance to the goals for courage in Adler’s Individual Therapy, and Yalom’s Existential Therapy, perhaps revealing the influence of Positive Psychology, or just that these theories have picked up truths already in place. From Fingeld’s (1999) interpretation, the construct of courage is defined as “full acceptance of reality”(p. 808), “problem solving”(p. 809), and “pushing beyond the struggle”(p. 809). These elements have been discussed through the theories of Adler, Frankl and Yalom, but it seems to be that the idea of “pushing beyond the struggle” particularly stood out from the meta-interpretation. Finfgeld (1999) also determined that a courageous individual possesses “personal integrity” and “thriving” (p. 810). These qualities respectively, allow an individual to grow into a markedly different person with a stronger sense of commitment, pride and self satisfaction, and the ability to be fully engaged in life, concerned for others, and have the ability to flourish in averse circumstances (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 811). Finally, Finfgeld found intrapersonally, that underlying values (or sense of purpose), hope, and self-confidence helped sustain an individual’s courage, while the interpersonal factors of “gestures of support” and having role models worked to sustain the intrapersonal dimension (1999, p. 812). Finfgeld drew several conclusions from this interpretation that are important for furthering the understanding of psychological courage. Similar to the contrast between physical and psychological courage, she stated that “a distinction can be inferred regarding impulsive responses to momentary danger versus courageously managing long term threats to physical and mental well being” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 813). Courage is most commonly associated with these spur-of-the-moment actions, partially through media portrayal. But this collection of studies confirms that courage exists within those persist through struggle. Finfgeld also gleaned a helpful therapeutic aspect from her study—the understanding that courage begets courage. In her article she reminded clinicians that what begin as difficult steps for individuals, eventually becomes second nature—and this applies to as she said, “pushing beyond strictly solipsistic perspectives to understand and assist others” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 813). This work of the therapist was outlined in both Yalom and Adler’s theories when dealing with neurotic patients. But the research of Finfgeld reveals that are commonalities where courage is concerned, no matter the cause of fear or anxiety to the individual. In conclusion, Finfgeld defines it this way:
The core of being courageous includes a long term commitment to take responsibility and push through and beyond the struggle involved in managing a threat; therefore individuals develop a “toughness” (Asarian, 1981, p. 89) that allows them to ‘immerse themselves in the courageous act’ so that fear and anxiety are assuaged” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 809).Courage and Hardiness
This definition includes the concept of “toughness” to describe an individual’s resilience to struggle. “Toughness” bears striking resemblance to another area of modern research in which the concept of courage is involved. “Hardiness” is a modern concept that supposedly works to “buffer the psychological and physical effects of stress on the body and was derived from the existential concept of the authentic personality” (Woodard. 2004, p. 173). The original research done on the concept of hardiness was for the purpose of understanding how stress affected the health of people who underwent difficult jobs in and situations. In an article about hardiness, S. C. Kobasa (1979) hypothesized: “among persons under stress, those who view change as a challenge will remain healthier than those who view it as a threat”(p. 4). Kobasa (1979), who coined the term “hardiness”, said in regard to the physiological response to stress that, “whatever this physiological response is, the personality characteristics of hardiness may cut into it, decreasing the likelihood of breakdown into illness” (p. 9-10). But courage has functioned been a part of the discussion on hardiness since in its inception (Kobasa 1977). In his 2006 article, Salvatore Maddi comments that existential psychology’s emphasis on learning to live with stressors, and apply courage, was for him and Kobasa, “instrumental in building the conceptualization of hardiness (Maddi & Kobasa, 1981)” (p. 162). Maddi (2006) outlined the role of hardiness within a process. In Maddi’s process, disruptive events or changes, and ongoing conflicts would undermine health by their organismic arousal (2006 p. 161). Over time, this would lead to “break downs occurring along the lines of one’s genetic vulnerabilities” (p.161). For Maddi (2006), an individual in possession of courage, would operate with “hardy action patterns”, most of which reflect the goals of positive psychology: “building social support, carrying out problem-solving (or transformational) coping, and engaging in effect self-care” (p. 161). Because coping with stress in such a way that it is turned to growth is more challenging than “coping by denial or avoidance”, Maddi (2006) states that courage is needed to make this choice. However, Woodard’s 2004 study, attempted to add the construct of courage to the three pre-existing measurements of hardiness compiled by Maddi and Kobasa, with little results.
The Place of Courage in Modern Research With the likes of theorists and clinicians such as Alfred Adler, Victor Frankl, and Irvin Yalom, positive psychology has grown in prevalence since the 1950’s. As psychology has taken more of an interest in the positive aspects of the person, courage has developed as a construct, and attempts have been made at finding a qualitative definition for it. Deborah L. Finfgeld preformed a meta-interpretation (1999) of six different qualitative studies that looked at the concept of courage in different health contexts. Primarily, those involved were “individuals with long-term threats to their well-being” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 804). Finfgeld compiled the research under three guidelines: that (1) the definition of “threat to wellbeing” would be clear, and defined, that (2) “established experiences of courage” were studied, and (3) well known and accepted methods were used in the studies examined. Finfgeld pulled from studies with participants who had battled cancer, HIV, physical disabilities, sexual assault, and other varied physical problems. Finfgeld’s Study
In her findings, Finfgeld categorized courage on a progressive-regressive continuum so as to label the fluid nature of the construct. She concluded that courage was a “dynamic phenomenon” caused by certain events, and “consisted of efforts to (a) fully accept reality, (b) problem solve based on discernment, and (c) push beyond ongoing struggles” (1999 p. 806). Finfgeld assessed from these studies that an individual’s path to being courageous was “bidirectional” and progress and regress. Much like the description of Bilbo Baggins in the Hobbit, pulling from a study by Haase (1985), Finfgeld (1999) found that “‘mini-situations of courage’ (Haase, p. 152) force movement in an overall progressive direction rather than a regressive direction” (p. 806). This process Finfgeld (1999) says, is revealed “within the context of an ongoing and amorphous struggle” (p. 807). The elements of this struggle may look like “participating in diagnostic and therapeutic regimes (Asarian, 1981; 1985), accepting compromises in one’s lifestyle (Finfgeld, 1992; Haase, 1985) and altering plans for the future” (Fingeld, 1999, p. 807). These comments bear distinct resemblance to the goals for courage in Adler’s Individual Therapy, and Yalom’s Existential Therapy, perhaps revealing the influence of Positive Psychology, or just that these theories have picked up truths already in place. From Fingeld’s (1999) interpretation, the construct of courage is defined as “full acceptance of reality”(p. 808), “problem solving”(p. 809), and “pushing beyond the struggle”(p. 809). These elements have been discussed through the theories of Adler, Frankl and Yalom, but it seems to be that the idea of “pushing beyond the struggle” particularly stood out from the meta-interpretation. Finfgeld (1999) also determined that a courageous individual possesses “personal integrity” and “thriving” (p. 810). These qualities respectively, allow an individual to grow into a markedly different person with a stronger sense of commitment, pride and self satisfaction, and the ability to be fully engaged in life, concerned for others, and have the ability to flourish in averse circumstances (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 811). Finally, Finfgeld found intrapersonally, that underlying values (or sense of purpose), hope, and self-confidence helped sustain an individual’s courage, while the interpersonal factors of “gestures of support” and having role models worked to sustain the intrapersonal dimension (1999, p. 812). Finfgeld drew several conclusions from this interpretation that are important for furthering the understanding of psychological courage. Similar to the contrast between physical and psychological courage, she stated that “a distinction can be inferred regarding impulsive responses to momentary danger versus courageously managing long term threats to physical and mental well being” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 813). Courage is most commonly associated with these spur-of-the-moment actions, partially through media portrayal. But this collection of studies confirms that courage exists within those persist through struggle. Finfgeld also gleaned a helpful therapeutic aspect from her study—the understanding that courage begets courage. In her article she reminded clinicians that what begin as difficult steps for individuals, eventually becomes second nature—and this applies to as she said, “pushing beyond strictly solipsistic perspectives to understand and assist others” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 813). This work of the therapist was outlined in both Yalom and Adler’s theories when dealing with neurotic patients. But the research of Finfgeld reveals that are commonalities where courage is concerned, no matter the cause of fear or anxiety to the individual. In conclusion, Finfgeld defines it this way:
The core of being courageous includes a long term commitment to take responsibility and push through and beyond the struggle involved in managing a threat; therefore individuals develop a “toughness” (Asarian, 1981, p. 89) that allows them to ‘immerse themselves in the courageous act’ so that fear and anxiety are assuaged” (Finfgeld, 1999, p. 809).Courage and Hardiness
This definition includes the concept of “toughness” to describe an individual’s resilience to struggle. “Toughness” bears striking resemblance to another area of modern research in which the concept of courage is involved. “Hardiness” is a modern concept that supposedly works to “buffer the psychological and physical effects of stress on the body and was derived from the existential concept of the authentic personality” (Woodard. 2004, p. 173). The original research done on the concept of hardiness was for the purpose of understanding how stress affected the health of people who underwent difficult jobs in and situations. In an article about hardiness, S. C. Kobasa (1979) hypothesized: “among persons under stress, those who view change as a challenge will remain healthier than those who view it as a threat”(p. 4). Kobasa (1979), who coined the term “hardiness”, said in regard to the physiological response to stress that, “whatever this physiological response is, the personality characteristics of hardiness may cut into it, decreasing the likelihood of breakdown into illness” (p. 9-10). But courage has functioned been a part of the discussion on hardiness since in its inception (Kobasa 1977). In his 2006 article, Salvatore Maddi comments that existential psychology’s emphasis on learning to live with stressors, and apply courage, was for him and Kobasa, “instrumental in building the conceptualization of hardiness (Maddi & Kobasa, 1981)” (p. 162). Maddi (2006) outlined the role of hardiness within a process. In Maddi’s process, disruptive events or changes, and ongoing conflicts would undermine health by their organismic arousal (2006 p. 161). Over time, this would lead to “break downs occurring along the lines of one’s genetic vulnerabilities” (p.161). For Maddi (2006), an individual in possession of courage, would operate with “hardy action patterns”, most of which reflect the goals of positive psychology: “building social support, carrying out problem-solving (or transformational) coping, and engaging in effect self-care” (p. 161). Because coping with stress in such a way that it is turned to growth is more challenging than “coping by denial or avoidance”, Maddi (2006) states that courage is needed to make this choice. However, Woodard’s 2004 study, attempted to add the construct of courage to the three pre-existing measurements of hardiness compiled by Maddi and Kobasa, with little results.
Woodard (2004) felt in part that this resulted from the fact that existential courage might be “too abstract a construct to measure” (p. 183). The nature of courage as a quantifiable construct has not been successfully understood, but Maddi and Kobasa’s (1984) constructs of commitment, control and challenge all require the more abstract concept of courage, for the sake of “turning stressful circumstances from potential disasters into growth opportunities (Maddi, 2002)” (Maddi, 2006, p. 160). However, Woodard comments on the null results of his study, “we are only now beginning to understand what general courage is and what influences personal decisions to act courageously” (2004, p. 183).
Personal and General Courage
Woodard’s comment addresses a particular distinction that is helpful in the unraveling of psychological courage, and making further categorizations beyond simply “physical” or “psychological” courage. In doing so, we are able to address the less common, but perhaps most important aspects of courage. In a 2007 article, Pury, Kowalksi and Spearman examined the difference between “general” and “personal” courage. The authors wished to examine courage in a way that took less from extremely difficult situations (such as warfare, rap victims, or chronic injury). The authors outlined two scenarios: one in which a man and a woman rescued a drowning swimmer off the coast of South Carolina (after many had attempted), and a 9 year old girl with learning disabilities, who’s test-taking anxiety made her physically ill. The individuals in both circumstances followed through with their courageous actions. But Pury et. al, described the biggest difference between the two situations by “the degree to which one needs to understand the actor’s individual experience to appreciate the courageousness of the action” (2007, p. 101). In therapy, this factor is dependent upon the empathy of the clinician, because to “appreciate the courage needed for the girl to take her test requires a great deal of knowledge about her as an individual” (Purty et al., 2007, p. 101). The importance of this, both for therapy and research, is that few recognize the individual who is high on personal courage except those in his or her social circle (Purty et al., 2007, p. 101). Pury et al. found that high scores on general courage correlated negatively with negative or fearful tone, and positively with self-confidence, while high scores in personal courage positively correlated with fearfulness in all cases (2007, p 110). In conclusion, Pury et al. (2007) point again to the work of Finfgeld (2006) and her statement that courage is the ability to “push beyond ongoing struggles” (p. 806) may be the best definition of personal courage.
Woodard’s comment addresses a particular distinction that is helpful in the unraveling of psychological courage, and making further categorizations beyond simply “physical” or “psychological” courage. In doing so, we are able to address the less common, but perhaps most important aspects of courage. In a 2007 article, Pury, Kowalksi and Spearman examined the difference between “general” and “personal” courage. The authors wished to examine courage in a way that took less from extremely difficult situations (such as warfare, rap victims, or chronic injury). The authors outlined two scenarios: one in which a man and a woman rescued a drowning swimmer off the coast of South Carolina (after many had attempted), and a 9 year old girl with learning disabilities, who’s test-taking anxiety made her physically ill. The individuals in both circumstances followed through with their courageous actions. But Pury et. al, described the biggest difference between the two situations by “the degree to which one needs to understand the actor’s individual experience to appreciate the courageousness of the action” (2007, p. 101). In therapy, this factor is dependent upon the empathy of the clinician, because to “appreciate the courage needed for the girl to take her test requires a great deal of knowledge about her as an individual” (Purty et al., 2007, p. 101). The importance of this, both for therapy and research, is that few recognize the individual who is high on personal courage except those in his or her social circle (Purty et al., 2007, p. 101). Pury et al. found that high scores on general courage correlated negatively with negative or fearful tone, and positively with self-confidence, while high scores in personal courage positively correlated with fearfulness in all cases (2007, p 110). In conclusion, Pury et al. (2007) point again to the work of Finfgeld (2006) and her statement that courage is the ability to “push beyond ongoing struggles” (p. 806) may be the best definition of personal courage.
Conclusion
With this knowledge, it may seem that courage is altogether a ghost of a concept. Yet, because of attention from positive, individual, and existential psychology, and the admonition from researchers such as Woodard that existential courage “may be too abstract a concept to measure”, it seems that courage is a product of the human soul, that is not reducible to variables. However courage itself seems to play an active role in supporting the ability to maintain variables (such as Maddi’s control, commitment and challenge) that make for a stable individual. Psychological, or personal courage, is centered on the idea of “struggling”, and can be tuned by other constructs like hope, purpose, community or encounter. But it exists in the realm of meaning, where measurements fear to tread.
With this knowledge, it may seem that courage is altogether a ghost of a concept. Yet, because of attention from positive, individual, and existential psychology, and the admonition from researchers such as Woodard that existential courage “may be too abstract a concept to measure”, it seems that courage is a product of the human soul, that is not reducible to variables. However courage itself seems to play an active role in supporting the ability to maintain variables (such as Maddi’s control, commitment and challenge) that make for a stable individual. Psychological, or personal courage, is centered on the idea of “struggling”, and can be tuned by other constructs like hope, purpose, community or encounter. But it exists in the realm of meaning, where measurements fear to tread.
Courage, Psychology and Faith
I would like to return to the comments of Frankl’s (1986) about the therapist as the eye-doctor, the one who restores the ability to see reality. The presence of faith in a therapist’s system, according to most of the theorists mentioned here, does not have much bearing on reality. For the therapist to be fully present (remember Yalom and Carlos) to the patient, the therapist must also face his or her inferiorities, mental prisons, and fear of death. Henri Nouwen put it this way: A deep human encounter in which a man is willing to put his own faith and doubt, his own hope and despair, his own light and darkness at the disposal of others who want to find a way through their confusion and touch the solid core of life (Nouwen, 1979, p. 39).
For the Christian therapist to have anything to offer a client in need of reality, his or her faith must be tried and tested, and found consistent with the stark and imposing story of scripture. The construct of courage is rooted deeply in the Christian faith, perhaps given as a mercy by God in recognition of the struggle before humankind from the garden until the second coming. In some ways, courage exists because of the breakdown in Genesis 3. Finfgeld’s (1999) description of an “ongoing and amorphous struggle” (p. 807) comes to mind as an outcome for reality as explained in scripture. Even in these modern theories, Adler observed how badly and how easily the breakdown between men and women can occur, as harmonious fellowship is lost, and they become socially isolated and disinterested. He devoted his life to finding the reconnection, the reintegration. Frankl observed astutely, that with hope, men and women can survive anything, and without it, they become a solipsistic mess, unable transcend themselves for the sake of others. Irvin Yalom, despite his honest atheism, describes humankind as completely terrified of itself, seeking to meld into the other by fusion, or find autonomy in separation. In attempting to align this with theology, this might be seen as a result of the weight of God’s image upon humankind, it being unable to bear such glory. Courage has allowed us to struggle, and to struggle well, striving always towards something better.
I would like to return to the comments of Frankl’s (1986) about the therapist as the eye-doctor, the one who restores the ability to see reality. The presence of faith in a therapist’s system, according to most of the theorists mentioned here, does not have much bearing on reality. For the therapist to be fully present (remember Yalom and Carlos) to the patient, the therapist must also face his or her inferiorities, mental prisons, and fear of death. Henri Nouwen put it this way: A deep human encounter in which a man is willing to put his own faith and doubt, his own hope and despair, his own light and darkness at the disposal of others who want to find a way through their confusion and touch the solid core of life (Nouwen, 1979, p. 39).
For the Christian therapist to have anything to offer a client in need of reality, his or her faith must be tried and tested, and found consistent with the stark and imposing story of scripture. The construct of courage is rooted deeply in the Christian faith, perhaps given as a mercy by God in recognition of the struggle before humankind from the garden until the second coming. In some ways, courage exists because of the breakdown in Genesis 3. Finfgeld’s (1999) description of an “ongoing and amorphous struggle” (p. 807) comes to mind as an outcome for reality as explained in scripture. Even in these modern theories, Adler observed how badly and how easily the breakdown between men and women can occur, as harmonious fellowship is lost, and they become socially isolated and disinterested. He devoted his life to finding the reconnection, the reintegration. Frankl observed astutely, that with hope, men and women can survive anything, and without it, they become a solipsistic mess, unable transcend themselves for the sake of others. Irvin Yalom, despite his honest atheism, describes humankind as completely terrified of itself, seeking to meld into the other by fusion, or find autonomy in separation. In attempting to align this with theology, this might be seen as a result of the weight of God’s image upon humankind, it being unable to bear such glory. Courage has allowed us to struggle, and to struggle well, striving always towards something better.
C.S. Lewis and Personal Courage
If the Christian therapist can adhere simply to the faith described in scripture, blood, transgression and all, he or she is in a remarkable place to offer hope, purpose, and instill true courage. The Christian therapist is in a position, not only to offer a perspective as one who has struggled through reality, but who also struggles before the maker of reality. In this way, the struggle and courage of the most unnoticeable person gains profound worth. C.S. Lewis (1952) entered the discussion near the time that Freud’s popularity was on the rise, with his discussion about morality and psychoanalysis in Mere Christianity. Lewis’ ideas bear a striking resemblance to Pury et al.’s (2007) description of “general” and “personal” courage, by making a distinction between an individual’s background and their display of courage. The importance lies in the fact that most often, Christians are caught labeling one another by their deeds. In an attempt to sober our judgments about others, Lewis (1952) pulled these concepts apart.
Lewis (1952) claimed that psychology sought to “put the human machine right” (p. 88), and in doing so, he made a distinction between an individual’s morality and their “mechanics”. The mechanics, or “raw psychological material” (Lewis, 1952, p. 90) is all that has gone into making a person who they are: class, parents, relationships, personality, and biology.
Lewis (1952) claimed that psychology sought to “put the human machine right” (p. 88), and in doing so, he made a distinction between an individual’s morality and their “mechanics”. The mechanics, or “raw psychological material” (Lewis, 1952, p. 90) is all that has gone into making a person who they are: class, parents, relationships, personality, and biology.
With this set of “materials”, an individual can then act morally. Lewis (1952) argued the case that we misjudge people when we judge them by their actions. Truly judging someone’s morality for Lewis, meant taking into account both their choices and their story. He used the example of a soldier who goes into battle, and as a result of elements in his subconscious has, “exaggerated, irrational fears, which no amount of moral effort can do anything about” (Lewis, 1952, p. 90). At this point, the soldier’s health is dependent upon therapy to “put the machine right”. As soon as this fear is understood and addressed, then the real question of morality arises (Lewis, 1952, p. 90). Here, the soldier can return to battle in control of himself, and with a mild enough confidence to fight. Or he can use his new found sensibility, and choose to look out only for himself, and seek shelter when the fight comes. For Lewis (1952), this was the truly moral choice—the content and context of which, only God can know. The point being that “we see only the results which a man’s choices make out of his raw material. But God does not judge him on the raw material at all, but on what he has done with it” (Lewis, 1952, p. 91). The Christian therapist has the opportunity to look at his or her patients through this perspective, and endeavor to see each person’s back-story with the purpose of witnessing their true, “personal” courage. Lewis described this beautifully:
When a neurotic who has a pathological horror of cats forces himself to pick up a cat for some good reason, it is quite possible that in God’s eyes he has shown more courage than a healthy man may have shown in winning the V.C. When a man who has been perverted from his youth and taught that cruelty is the right thing, does some tiny little kindness, or refrains from some cruelty he might have committed, and thereby, perhaps, risks being sneered at by his companions, he may, in God’s eyes, be doing more than you and I would do if we gave up life itself for a friend (1952, p. 91).
Courage and the Christian Clinician
In these ways, the Christian counselor is given the opportunity to be both instiller and modeler of courage, as well as the witness to those whose struggle has no audience other than God. As the therapist works together with the patient to face reality, working through this process in light of the Christian story can provide hope, but it does not create the illusion of Yalom’s “ultimate rescuer” (1998, p. 229). The “ultimate rescuer” conjures the idea that faith itself is some kind of therapy, instead of a framework. The danger lies in the counselor or therapist who places more emphasis on bringing lost souls back from the brink of hell, than bringing lost lives back from the edge of death. However, neither does the Christian therapist see death as something, ultimately to fear, but rather face with hope. Henri Nouwen addressed this in his book the Wounded Healer. Nouwen narrated the story of a “clinical-minister” who was given a chance to counsel an old man going into a surgery that put his life at risk. The old man offered a disclosure about his conception of the afterlife and fear of dying to the young minister by saying, “if this is the end, this is one who’s gonna be lost” (Nouwen, 1979, p. 53). Beneath these statements, Nouwen interpreted that the old man’s true fear was that there would be no one there for him when he woke up.
The young minister was frustrated by what he perceived as the old man’s unresponsiveness. Nouwen skillfully described the old man’s disillusionment at hospitalization and loss of his own physical independence as signs of a person who has lost their will to live. The old man passed away, Nouwen argued, because he has nothing to live for on the other side of surgery. He said of the young minister, “his task was therefore to strengthen his patient’s desire to recover and to reinforce what little strength he had in the struggle for life” (Nouwen, 1979, p. 65). In offering to be there for the old man, what Nouwen would have done was probably not much different than Yalom. Both men emphasize the relationship with the patient as what spawns the patient’s hope. In this situation, with a therapist like Yalom, faith exists as a potentially dangerous part of the old man’s thinking, and though not attacked, it may be warily side-stepped. But to Nouwen, the old man’s faith was an important part of what kept him alive, and could be given credibility and looked to for life.
Discussion
In conclusion, it seems that after an examination of courage through different strains of positive psychology, the concept of hope is inextricably tied to courage. In each theory, hope functions as the ignition for courage in the face of trying times. Alfred Adler’s work with his patients allowed them hope for normal functioning and social integration that in turn gave them the courage to undergo the struggle of accepting life as less than ideal. Few theorists have put forth such a “Christian” approach to the personality, and to our struggle to accept our brokenness. Victor Frankl also saw hope to be the catalyst for courageous behavior in any trying circumstance. For Frankl, it was the individual’s inherent drive to make meaning out of his or her life that made the difference. A tribute, in a sense, to the idea the God has set eternity in the hearts of men. For Yalom, instilling hope through therapeutic relationships gives the patient the courage to face looming fears of death, and the overwhelming existential freedom in life. Those of faith would do well to acknowledge with Yalom (and the writer of Ecclesiastes) that death is near and we do fear it. With the modern research on courage, researchers such as Maddi, Kobasa and Woodard have come close to operationalizing courage, but none have succeeded. It is obvious that courage contributes a person’s ability to weather the storms of life, but there is not an inherently physiological mechanism of courage. For those “struggling” through life, whether as a neurotic patient, or someone suffering from chronic pain, the resilience to continue forward comes from an indefinable part of the human character. We have also seen that this kind of courage can often be passed over in favor of those who act externally courageous. We know only so much about the actual courage of a person as we know about their story. When speaking of courage, it seems that it is impossible not to take the discussion towards concepts like meaning, purpose and even spirituality. The resistance or ignorance of psychology and psychologists of treating spirituality as reality, does not negate its meaning, or place in bringing us hope. In understanding that courage is a construct that is not simply recognizable by impressive actions, it calls for the understanding of individual’s lives, and what the “struggle” looks like within their shoes. Christianity is in a unique place to interpret this as it is greatly concerned with good deeds done in a secret, and a life lived before a Creator. Few see the beauty of this in the way that the Christian therapist does. The Christian therapist must stand alongside each of the existing theories of positive psychology and ask his or her patients to face the realities that they live within, all the while, cheering them on at the small, but courageous steps that lead to a larger life.
Refrences
Adler, Alfred (1927) The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology In H. Ansbacher & R. Ansbacher (Eds.) The individual psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. New York, NY: HarperPerenial (1964) Ansbacher, Heinz, Ansbacher, Rowena R. (1964) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. New York, NY: HarperPerenial
Finfgeld, Deborah L. (1999) Courage as a process of pushing beyond the struggle.
Journal of Qualitative Health Research, 9, (6), 803-814
Forman, David (2005) Over My Dead Body: Some questions for God. Jerusalem: Gefen PublishingHouse.Frankl, Victor (1986) Man’s Search for Meaning. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Inc.Guttmann, David (2008) Finding Meaning in Life, at Midlife and Beyond: Wisdom and Spirit from Logotherapy. Wesport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing GroupHansel, Tim (1973) You Got to Keep Dancing. Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook Publishing
Hillmann, Manfred, (2004) Handbook of Motivational Counseling. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.Kobasa, S. C. (1979) Stressful life events, personality, and health: an inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37, (1),1-11.
Lukas, Elizabeth, (2002) Comprehensive handbook of psychotherapy: Interpersonal/humanistic/existential, Vol. 3. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Nouwen, Henri J. M., (1979) The Wounded Healer. New York, NY: DoubledayO’Connell, Walter E., (1972) Frankl, Adler, and Spirituality. Journal of Religion and Health, 11, (2), pp. 134—138Putman, Daniel (1997) Psychological Courage. Journal of Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, 1-11Tillich, Paul (1952) The Courage to Be. Clinton, Massachusetts: Yale University Press
Tillich, Paul, (1963) The Eternal Now. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons
Tolkien, J. R. R. (John Ronald Reuel) (1972) The Hobbit: There and back again. London: George Allen & UnwinVaughn, Wayland (1927) The Psychology of Alfred Adler. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 21, (4), pp. 358-371
Woodard, Cooper R. (2004) Hardiness and the Concept of Courage. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 56, (3), 173—185.Wright, Phillip, (2011)
Yalom, Irvin D., (2002) Religion and Psychiatry. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 56, (3), 301—316.Yalom, Irvin D., Shaughnessy, Michael F., Main, Douglas, Madewell, Judy, (2007) An Interview with Irvin Yalom. North American Journal of Psychology, 9, (3), 511—518
Yalom, Irvin D., (1989) Love’s Executioner: and other tales of Psychotherapy. New York, NY: Harper Collins
Yalom, Irvin D., (1998) The Yalom Reader: Selections from the Work of a Master Therapist and Storyteller. New York, NY: BasicBooksYang, Julia, Milliren, Alan, Blagen, Mark (2010) The Psychology of Courage: an Adlerian handbook for healthy social living. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group
The young minister was frustrated by what he perceived as the old man’s unresponsiveness. Nouwen skillfully described the old man’s disillusionment at hospitalization and loss of his own physical independence as signs of a person who has lost their will to live. The old man passed away, Nouwen argued, because he has nothing to live for on the other side of surgery. He said of the young minister, “his task was therefore to strengthen his patient’s desire to recover and to reinforce what little strength he had in the struggle for life” (Nouwen, 1979, p. 65). In offering to be there for the old man, what Nouwen would have done was probably not much different than Yalom. Both men emphasize the relationship with the patient as what spawns the patient’s hope. In this situation, with a therapist like Yalom, faith exists as a potentially dangerous part of the old man’s thinking, and though not attacked, it may be warily side-stepped. But to Nouwen, the old man’s faith was an important part of what kept him alive, and could be given credibility and looked to for life.
Discussion
In conclusion, it seems that after an examination of courage through different strains of positive psychology, the concept of hope is inextricably tied to courage. In each theory, hope functions as the ignition for courage in the face of trying times. Alfred Adler’s work with his patients allowed them hope for normal functioning and social integration that in turn gave them the courage to undergo the struggle of accepting life as less than ideal. Few theorists have put forth such a “Christian” approach to the personality, and to our struggle to accept our brokenness. Victor Frankl also saw hope to be the catalyst for courageous behavior in any trying circumstance. For Frankl, it was the individual’s inherent drive to make meaning out of his or her life that made the difference. A tribute, in a sense, to the idea the God has set eternity in the hearts of men. For Yalom, instilling hope through therapeutic relationships gives the patient the courage to face looming fears of death, and the overwhelming existential freedom in life. Those of faith would do well to acknowledge with Yalom (and the writer of Ecclesiastes) that death is near and we do fear it. With the modern research on courage, researchers such as Maddi, Kobasa and Woodard have come close to operationalizing courage, but none have succeeded. It is obvious that courage contributes a person’s ability to weather the storms of life, but there is not an inherently physiological mechanism of courage. For those “struggling” through life, whether as a neurotic patient, or someone suffering from chronic pain, the resilience to continue forward comes from an indefinable part of the human character. We have also seen that this kind of courage can often be passed over in favor of those who act externally courageous. We know only so much about the actual courage of a person as we know about their story. When speaking of courage, it seems that it is impossible not to take the discussion towards concepts like meaning, purpose and even spirituality. The resistance or ignorance of psychology and psychologists of treating spirituality as reality, does not negate its meaning, or place in bringing us hope. In understanding that courage is a construct that is not simply recognizable by impressive actions, it calls for the understanding of individual’s lives, and what the “struggle” looks like within their shoes. Christianity is in a unique place to interpret this as it is greatly concerned with good deeds done in a secret, and a life lived before a Creator. Few see the beauty of this in the way that the Christian therapist does. The Christian therapist must stand alongside each of the existing theories of positive psychology and ask his or her patients to face the realities that they live within, all the while, cheering them on at the small, but courageous steps that lead to a larger life.
Refrences
Adler, Alfred (1927) The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology In H. Ansbacher & R. Ansbacher (Eds.) The individual psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. New York, NY: HarperPerenial (1964) Ansbacher, Heinz, Ansbacher, Rowena R. (1964) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. New York, NY: HarperPerenial
Finfgeld, Deborah L. (1999) Courage as a process of pushing beyond the struggle.
Journal of Qualitative Health Research, 9, (6), 803-814
Forman, David (2005) Over My Dead Body: Some questions for God. Jerusalem: Gefen PublishingHouse.Frankl, Victor (1986) Man’s Search for Meaning. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Inc.Guttmann, David (2008) Finding Meaning in Life, at Midlife and Beyond: Wisdom and Spirit from Logotherapy. Wesport, CT: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing GroupHansel, Tim (1973) You Got to Keep Dancing. Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook Publishing
Hillmann, Manfred, (2004) Handbook of Motivational Counseling. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.Kobasa, S. C. (1979) Stressful life events, personality, and health: an inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37, (1),1-11.
Lukas, Elizabeth, (2002) Comprehensive handbook of psychotherapy: Interpersonal/humanistic/existential, Vol. 3. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Nouwen, Henri J. M., (1979) The Wounded Healer. New York, NY: DoubledayO’Connell, Walter E., (1972) Frankl, Adler, and Spirituality. Journal of Religion and Health, 11, (2), pp. 134—138Putman, Daniel (1997) Psychological Courage. Journal of Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, 1-11Tillich, Paul (1952) The Courage to Be. Clinton, Massachusetts: Yale University Press
Tillich, Paul, (1963) The Eternal Now. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons
Tolkien, J. R. R. (John Ronald Reuel) (1972) The Hobbit: There and back again. London: George Allen & UnwinVaughn, Wayland (1927) The Psychology of Alfred Adler. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 21, (4), pp. 358-371
Woodard, Cooper R. (2004) Hardiness and the Concept of Courage. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 56, (3), 173—185.Wright, Phillip, (2011)
Yalom, Irvin D., (2002) Religion and Psychiatry. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 56, (3), 301—316.Yalom, Irvin D., Shaughnessy, Michael F., Main, Douglas, Madewell, Judy, (2007) An Interview with Irvin Yalom. North American Journal of Psychology, 9, (3), 511—518
Yalom, Irvin D., (1989) Love’s Executioner: and other tales of Psychotherapy. New York, NY: Harper Collins
Yalom, Irvin D., (1998) The Yalom Reader: Selections from the Work of a Master Therapist and Storyteller. New York, NY: BasicBooksYang, Julia, Milliren, Alan, Blagen, Mark (2010) The Psychology of Courage: an Adlerian handbook for healthy social living. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group
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